tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-42697174054238041922024-03-25T06:58:14.893-07:00Gabungan Mahasiswa Kejuruteraan (GMK) Unisel Web BlogBersama Memajukan IndustriGabungan Mahasiswa Kejuruteraanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03438000291098117936noreply@blogger.comBlogger37125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4269717405423804192.post-54801368958082415342009-11-21T07:06:00.000-08:002009-11-21T07:06:02.464-08:00Liquid battery big enough for the electric grid?<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice//images/article_images/20091118140628-1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice//images/article_images/20091118140628-1.jpg" width="240" /></a><br />
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</div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #333333; font-size: 14px;">There’s one major drawback to most proposed renewable-energy sources: their variability. The sun doesn’t shine at night, the wind doesn’t always blow, and tides, waves and currents fluctuate. That’s why many researchers have been pursuing ways of storing the power generated by these sources so that it can be used when it’s needed.</span><br />
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So far, those solutions have tended to be too expensive, limited to only certain areas, or difficult to scale up sufficiently to meet the demands. Many researchers are struggling to overcome these limitations, but MIT professor Donald Sadoway has come up with an innovative approach that has garnered significant interest — and some major funding.<br />
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The idea is to build an entirely new kind of battery, whose key components would be kept at high temperature so that they would stay entirely in liquid form. The experimental devices currently being tested in Sadoway’s lab work in a way that’s never been attempted in batteries before.<br />
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This month, the newly established federal agency ARPA-E (Advanced Research Projects Agency, Energy) announced its first 37 energy-research grants out of a pool of 3,600 applications, and Sadoway’s project to develop utility-scale batteries received one of the largest sums — almost $7 million over five years. And within a few days of the ARPA-E announcement, the French oil company Total — the world’s fifth-largest — announced a $4 million, five-year joint venture with MIT to develop a smaller-scale version of the same technology, suitable for use in individual homes or other buildings.<br />
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Because the technology is being patented and could lead to very large-scale commercialization, Sadoway will not discuss the details of the materials being used. But both Sadoway and ARPA-E say the battery is based on low-cost, domestically available liquid metals that have the potential to shatter the cost barrier to large-scale energy storage as part of the nation's energy grid. In announcing its funding of Sadoway’s work, ARPA-E said the battery technology “could revolutionize the way electricity is used and produced on the grid, enabling round-the-clock power from America's wind and solar power resources, increasing the stability of the grid, and making blackouts a thing of the past.”<br />
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Andrew Chung, a principal at Lightspeed Venture Partners in Menlo Park, Calif., which has no equity stake in Sadoway’s project at this point, says that “grid-scale storage is an area that’s set to explode in the next decade or so,” and is one that his company is following closely. The liquid battery concept Sadoway is developing “is an exciting approach to solving the problem,” he says.<br />
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<b style="font-weight: bold;">Big is beautiful</b><br />
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Most battery research, Sadoway says, has been aimed at improving storage for portable or mobile systems such as cellphones, computers and cars. The requirements for such systems, including very low weight and high safety, are very different from the needs of a grid-scale, fixed-location battery system. “What I did was completely ignore the conventional technology used for portable power,” he says. The different set of requirements for stationary systems “opens up a whole new range of possibilities.”<br />
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A large, utility-owned system “doesn’t have to be crash-worthy; it doesn’t have to be ‘idiot-proof’ because it won’t be in the hands of the consumer.” And while consumers are willing to pay high prices, pound-for-pound, for the small batteries used in high-value portable devices, the biggest constraint on utility-sized systems is cost. In order to compete with present fossil-fuel power systems, he says, “it has got to be cheap to build, cheap to maintain, last a long time with minimal maintenance, and store enormous amounts of energy.”<br />
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And so the new liquid batteries that Sadoway and his team, including graduate student David Bradwell, are designing use low-cost, abundant materials. The basic principle is to place three layers of liquid inside a container: Two different metal alloys, and one layer of a salt. The three materials are chosen so that they have different densities that allow them to separate naturally into three distinct layers, with the salt in the middle separating the two metal layers —like novelty drinks with different layers.<br />
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The energy is stored in the liquid metals that want to react with one another but can do so only by transferring ions — electrically charged atoms of one of the metals — across the electrolyte, which results in the flow of electric current out of the battery. When the battery is being charged, some ions migrate through the insulating salt layer to collect at one of the terminals. Then, when the power is being drained from the battery, those ions migrate back through the salt and collect at the opposite terminal.<br />
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The whole device is kept at a high temperature, around 700 degrees Celsius, so that the layers remain molten. In the small devices being tested in the lab, maintaining this temperature requires an outside heater, but Sadoway says that in the full-scale version, the electrical current being pumped into, or out of, the battery will be sufficient to maintain that temperature without any outside heat source.<br />
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While some previous battery technologies have used one liquid-metal component, this is the first design for an all-liquid battery system, Sadoway says. “Solid components in batteries are speed bumps. When you want ultra-high current, you don’t want any solids.”<br />
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<b style="font-weight: bold;">Inspiration from aluminum </b><br />
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The initial inspiration for the idea came from thinking about a very different technology, Sadoway says: one of the biggest users of electrical energy, aluminum smelting plants. Sadoway realized that this was one of the few existing examples of a system that could sustain extremely high levels of electrical current over a sustained period of years at a time. “It’s an electrochemical process that runs at high temperatures, and at a current of hundreds of thousands of amps,” he says. In a sense, the new concept is like an aluminum plant running in reverse, producing power instead of consuming it.<br />
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Chung says that from the point of view of a venture capitalist, the research is particularly intriguing for several reasons. Not only does it offer the potential to significantly lower the cost and increase cycle life [the number of times it can be charged and discharged] of large-scale electricity storage, but it also suggests that the risk typically associated with an early stage research project may be lower because the system draws on decades of experience in the design and operation of aluminum production facilities. “That gives us added confidence that some of the targets around cost, scalability and safety have merit,” he says.<br />
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The team is now testing a number of different variations of the exact composition of the materials in the three layers, and of the design of the overall device. Sadoway says that thanks to initial funding through the Deshpande Center and the Chesonis Family Foundation, he and his team were able to develop the concept to the point of demonstrating a proof-of-principle at the laboratory scale. That, in turn, made it possible to get the large grants to develop the technology further.<br />
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“It’s an example of work that sprang from basic science, was developed to a pilot scale, and now is being scaled up to have a real transformational impact in the world,” says Ernest Moniz, director of the MIT Energy Initiative.<br />
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The laboratory tests have provided “some measure of confidence,” Sadoway says. But many more tests will be needed to “demonstrate that the idea is scalable to industrial size, at competitive cost.” But while he is very confident that it will all work, there are a lot of unknowns, he says, including how to design and build the necessary containers, electrical control systems, and connections.<br />
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“We’re talking about batteries of a size never seen before,” he says. And the system they develop has to include everything, including control systems and charger electronics on an unprecedented scale.<br />
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For Sadoway, the project is worth pursuing despite its daunting challenges, because the potential impact is so great. “I’m not doing this because I want another journal publication,” Sadoway says. “It’s about making a difference … It’s an opportunity to invent our way out of the energy problem.”</div><br />
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</script>Gabungan Mahasiswa Kejuruteraanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03438000291098117936noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4269717405423804192.post-31483400579780155602009-11-06T15:35:00.000-08:002009-11-06T15:39:51.366-08:00Mechatronic Engineering Club ( MEC ) Annual General Meeting 2009<div style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: small;"><span style="-webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 2px; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 2px; font-size: 13px; white-space: pre;"><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><span style="-webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 0px; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 0px; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: medium; font-weight: normal; white-space: normal;"></span></b></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: small;"><span style="-webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 2px; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 2px; font-size: 13px; white-space: pre;"><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><div style="text-align: center;"><div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS'; line-height: 19px;"><span style="-webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 2px; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 2px; color: black; font-family: Arial; line-height: normal; white-space: pre;"><b><span style="font-size: x-large;">Mechatronic Engineering Club ( MEC )</span></b></span></span><br />
</div></div><div style="text-align: center;"><div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS'; line-height: 19px;"><span style="-webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 2px; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 2px; color: black; font-family: Arial; line-height: normal; white-space: pre;"><b><span style="font-size: x-large;">Annual General Meeting 2009</span></b></span></span><br />
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</div></div><div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS'; line-height: 19px;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Arial;"><span style="-webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 2px; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 2px; line-height: normal; white-space: pre;"><b><span style="font-size: x-large;">Date : 11 November 2009</span></b></span></span></span><br />
</div><div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS'; line-height: 19px;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Arial;"><span style="-webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 2px; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 2px; line-height: normal; white-space: pre;"><b><span style="font-size: x-large;">Time : 2.00 P.M.</span></b></span></span></span><br />
</div><div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS'; line-height: 19px;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Arial;"><span style="-webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 2px; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 2px; line-height: normal; white-space: pre;"><b><span style="font-size: x-large;">Venue : ERC, Faculty of Engineering, Unisel.</span></b></span></span></span><br />
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</span></b></span></span></span><br />
</div><div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS'; line-height: 19px;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Arial;"><span style="-webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 2px; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 2px; line-height: normal; white-space: pre;"><b><span style="font-size: x-large;">All Mechatronic engineering student are </span></b></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS'; line-height: 19px;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Arial;"><span style="-webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 2px; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 2px; line-height: normal; white-space: pre;"><b><span style="font-size: x-large;"><br />
</span></b></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS'; line-height: 19px;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Arial;"><span style="-webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 2px; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 2px; line-height: normal; white-space: pre;"><b><span style="font-size: x-large;">invited to come..</span></b></span></span></span><br />
</div><div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px;"><span style="font-family: Arial;"><span style="-webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 2px; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 2px; white-space: pre;"><b><span style="font-size: x-large;"><br />
</span></b></span></span><br />
</div><div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px;"><span style="font-family: Arial;"><span style="-webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 2px; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 2px; white-space: pre;"><b><span style="font-size: x-large;">Web Blog : mecunisel.blogspot.com</span></b></span></span><br />
</div><div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px;"><span style="font-family: Arial;"><span style="-webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 2px; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 2px; white-space: pre;"><b><span style="font-size: x-large;">Email : mec.unisel@gmail.com</span></b></span></span><br />
</div><div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: small;"><span style="-webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 2px; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 2px; font-size: 13px; white-space: pre;"><br />
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</script>Gabungan Mahasiswa Kejuruteraanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03438000291098117936noreply@blogger.com4tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4269717405423804192.post-46703243005868911092009-10-29T00:04:00.000-07:002009-11-01T21:29:35.542-08:004th UNIVERSITI INDUSTRI SELANGOR'S CONVOCATION (31 October - 1 November)<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiwdr0qI6875cAU0Kmcau8OjYL-GgIvUMzmG5zQoMw1cx1OI09fLwJvjrdIIxO-3XEEdKR0_8s964DwQkkC-JXSEO-s0_m34TiGMkPH-Bf43aaFbWIB-qot2H1LyIJa1T6emWIPqKBgCbfS/s1600-h/konvo4.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="158" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiwdr0qI6875cAU0Kmcau8OjYL-GgIvUMzmG5zQoMw1cx1OI09fLwJvjrdIIxO-3XEEdKR0_8s964DwQkkC-JXSEO-s0_m34TiGMkPH-Bf43aaFbWIB-qot2H1LyIJa1T6emWIPqKBgCbfS/s400/konvo4.jpg" vr="true" width="400" /></a><br />
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On behalf of all GMK's member we would like to congrats all of this year graduates a HAPPY GRADUATION DAY. now all your hard work is paid off. time to get on with your life and be successful. have fun and take a lots of pictures!!!!<br />
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<span style="font-family: Times,'Times New Roman',serif;"><b>*Jon Mclaughlin: 4 Years</b></span><br />
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</div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Verdana; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,'Times New Roman',serif;">They tore my high school to the ground and<br />
put a new wing in the east lot<br />
On my old parking spot<br />
It stands reminding me of how<br />
I wish that i could travel back in time<br />
Change my state of mind<br />
<br />
So if you're still in your teens listen to me<br />
<br />
It's hard to see beyond these walls<br />
Of who (who) and who not to be<br />
Socially<br />
Maybe you're in you're out<br />
But in the end when all your hats are in the air<br />
Nobody's gonna care<br />
<br />
So fair the weight<br />
Freshmen hold on<br />
It's only four years long<br />
Then it's gone<br />
And the queen of the nerds and the king of the prom get a job<br />
Look at them now<br />
She's living her dreams while he sleeps with his crown<br />
So be cool, be hot, be weird<br />
It's just four years<br />
<br />
Next time you're walking through your school<br />
Take at who's surrounding you<br />
Or hounding you<br />
Cause it's all just castles in the sand<br />
When your tassel's on the left side of your head<br />
You're never going back<br />
<br />
So hope (?)<br />
It's only four years long<br />
Then it's gone<br />
And the king of the nerds and the queen of the prom get a job<br />
What did you know?<br />
He's a CEO and she answers his phone<br />
So be cool, be hot, be weird<br />
It's just four years<br />
<br />
And as for your grades I know they're important<br />
Everyone wants to be a wiz<br />
Cause all of it goes on permanent transcripts<br />
I just don't know where mine is<br />
<br />
So fair the weight<br />
Freshmen hold on cause every homecoming court moves on<br />
It's only four years long<br />
Then it's gone<br />
And the queen of the nerds and the king of the prom get a job<br />
Look at them now<br />
She's living her dreams while he sleeps with his crown<br />
So be cool, be hot, be weird oh<br />
So be hot, be wild, you're here oh<br />
Be cool, be hot, be weird<br />
It's just four years<br />
</span><br />
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</div>Gabungan Mahasiswa Kejuruteraanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03438000291098117936noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4269717405423804192.post-74700248250750656152009-10-28T22:39:00.000-07:002009-10-29T08:50:59.350-07:00PROTON'S LATEST PROJECT: TURBO ENGINE DERIVES FROM REGULAR CAMPRO'SBy Muhammad Huzairy<br />
<img alt="Proton Turbo Engine" src="http://media2.paultan.org/i/proton-turbo-engine-1.jpg" /><br />
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I've recently browsing this very interesting car review website and was reading an interesting new project by our national car maker PROTON. this latest engine is to turbocharge the existing regular campro engine to produce an output similar to 2.0 liter engine power capacity. (the regular campro is 1.6 liter). turbocharged engine, a 150 horse power figure would probably be accompanied by 220Nm to 240Nm (2.0 liter engine normally aspirated around 140 to 150 horsepower.)<br />
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now..whats interesting is that a group of 70 engineers from proton were sent to lotus engineering in the uk. this is a good afford since lotus is one of the best carmaker around and fully own by proton, but even lotus cars used engine from toyota hehehehehe... i'm guessing both of them are learning something new...<br />
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the engine is due 2011.. <br />
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more information go to www.paultan.org or http://paultan.org/topics/cars/malaysian-makes/proton/<br />
<br />
p/s: the newscaster mention the output horsepower is 1600... is she crazy or whatGabungan Mahasiswa Kejuruteraanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03438000291098117936noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4269717405423804192.post-91699262421003757152009-10-28T22:10:00.001-07:002009-10-29T08:59:23.816-07:00Lotus Engineering’s new Versatile Vehicle Architecture (source: paultan.org) – INTERESTING STUFF TO READ<a href="http://www.scribd.com/doc/21624030/Evora-Vva-Pages" style="display: block; font-family: Helvetica,Arial,Sans-serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 14px; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 12px auto 6px; text-decoration: underline;" title="View Evora Vva Pages on Scribd">Evora Vva Pages</a> <object align="middle" classid="clsid:d27cdb6e-ae6d-11cf-96b8-444553540000" codebase="http://download.macromedia.com/pub/shockwave/cabs/flash/swflash.cab#version=9,0,0,0" id="doc_704928534491290" name="doc_704928534491290"><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"></span><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"></span> <span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span><param name="quality" value="high"><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span><param name="play" value="true"><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span><param name="loop" value="true"><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span><param name="scale" value="showall"><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span><param name="wmode" value="opaque"><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span><param name="devicefont" value="false"><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span><param name="bgcolor" value="#ffffff"><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span><param name="menu" value="true"><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span><param name="allowFullScreen" value="true"><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span><param name="allowScriptAccess" value="always"><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span><param name="salign" value=""> <span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> <span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span><param name="mode" value="list"><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> <span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span><embed src="http://d1.scribdassets.com/ScribdViewer.swf?document_id=21624030&access_key=key-2nvdkdzl7b8tcm3mx7q1&page=1&version=1&viewMode=list" quality="high" pluginspage="http://www.macromedia.com/go/getflashplayer" play="true" loop="true" scale="showall" wmode="opaque" devicefont="false" bgcolor="#ffffff" name="doc_704928534491290_object" menu="true" allowfullscreen="true" allowscriptaccess="always" salign="" type="application/x-shockwave-flash" align="middle" mode="list" height="500" width="100%"></embed><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span></object><span style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Gabungan Mahasiswa Kejuruteraanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03438000291098117936noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4269717405423804192.post-39228674924360883232009-10-14T20:02:00.000-07:002009-10-20T22:11:32.092-07:00MATLAB BASIC WORKSHOP<div style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://visl.technion.ac.il/projects/2005w07/matlab7_logo.jpg" onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}"><img alt="" border="0" src="http://visl.technion.ac.il/projects/2005w07/matlab7_logo.jpg" style="cursor: pointer; height: 394px; width: 394px;" /></a><br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: 180%;"><span style="font-weight: bold;">MATLAB BASIC WORKSHOP</span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">DATE : 21 NOVEMBER 2009<br />
<br />
TIME : 9.00 AM - 5.00 PM<br />
<br />
VANUE : AUTOMATION LAB , FACULTY OF ENGINEERING<br />
<br />
FEE : RM 5.00 PER PARTICIPANT<br />
<br />
INTRESTED...PLEASE CONTACT<br />
<br />
FITRI - 0125465725<br />
</span><br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;"><br />
</span><br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">COURSE OUTLINE :</span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">MODULE 1 : INTRODUCTION TO MATLAB</span><br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">- Introduce to MATLAB user interface</span><br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">- Introduce to MATLAB variables and expession</span><br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">- Plotting the graph</span><br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;"><br />
</span><br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">MODULE 2 : APPLICATION OF MATLAB</span><br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">- Application in Control System</span><br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">- Application in Fuzzy Logic<br />
</span><br />
</div>Gabungan Mahasiswa Kejuruteraanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03438000291098117936noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4269717405423804192.post-50432204762962733772009-10-13T22:31:00.000-07:002009-10-29T08:51:25.084-07:00Happy Deepavali<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://img197.imageshack.us/img197/7826/happydiwali.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="271" src="http://img197.imageshack.us/img197/7826/happydiwali.jpg" width="400" /></a><br />
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;">Happy Deepavali to all student and lecturer.....from Gabungan Mahasiswa Kejuruteraan Unisel</span> <br />
</div>Gabungan Mahasiswa Kejuruteraanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03438000291098117936noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4269717405423804192.post-55613881848721043302009-10-13T06:11:00.000-07:002009-10-19T06:34:59.970-07:00Taipei 101 - Taipei Skyscraper<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/Taipei101.portrait.altonthompson.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="640" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/Taipei101.portrait.altonthompson.jpg" width="318" /></a><br />
</div><br />
<b>Taipei 101</b> (traditional Chinese: <span lang="zh-Hant">台北101 / 臺北101</span>), also known as the <b>Taipei Financial Center</b>, is a landmark skyscraper located in Xinyi District, Taipei, Taiwan. The building, designed by C.Y. Lee & Partners and constructed primarily by KTRT Joint Venture and Samsung Engineering & Construction<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taipei_101#cite_note-1"> </a></sup>is the world's tallest completed skyscraper according to the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-2"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taipei_101#cite_note-2"></a></sup>, the arbiter of tall building height. Taipei 101 received the Emporis Skyscraper Award in 2004. It has been hailed as one of the Seven New Wonders of the World (<i>Newsweek</i> magazine, 2006) and Seven Wonders of Engineering (Discovery Channel, 2005).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;" title=" since July 2009"></span></sup>The tower has become an icon of modern Taiwan. Fireworks launched from Taipei 101 feature prominently in international New Year's Eve broadcasts and the structure appears frequently in travel literature and international media.<br />
<br />
The building contains 101 floors above ground and 5 floors underground. The name of the tower, pronounced simply as "one oh one" in English, reflects its floor count and carries additional symbolism in technology and Asian tradition .The structure's postmodern style gives a modern treatment to traditional features and invokes both Asian and international style elements. The tower is designed to withstand typhoons and earthquakes. A multi-level shopping mall adjoining the tower houses hundreds of fashionable stores, restaurants and clubs.<br />
<br />
Taipei 101 is owned by the Taipei Financial Center Corporation and managed by the International division of Urban Retail Properties Corporation based in Chicago. The name originally planned for the building, <b>Taipei World Financial Center</b>, was derived from the name of the owner. The original name in Chinese was literally, <i>Taipei International Financial Center</i> (traditional Chinese: <span lang="zh-Hant">臺北國際金融中心</span>; pinyin: <i><i>Táiběi Guójì Jīnróng Zhōngxīn</i></i>).<br />
<br />
Taipei 101 was overtaken in height on July 21, 2007 by the Burj Dubai in Dubai, UAE, upon the completion of that building's 141st floor. The title of "world's tallest building" still rests with Taipei 101, however, as international architectural standards define a "building" as a completed structure capable of being occupied. The Burj Dubai is expected to reach completion in December 2009.<br />
<br />
<h2><span id="Features">Features</span></h2><h3><span id="Height">Height</span></h3><div class="thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="width: 182px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Skyscrapercompare.svg"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="143" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Skyscrapercompare.svg/180px-Skyscrapercompare.svg.png" width="180" /></a> <br />
<div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify">Height comparison of Taipei 101 with the Willis Tower, the Petronas Towers, and the Empire State Building.<br />
</div><div class="magnify"><br />
</div></div></div></div>Taipei 101 has 101 stories above ground and five underground. Upon its completion Taipei 101 claimed the official records for:<br />
<ul><li><i>Ground to highest architectural structure (spire):</i> 509.2 metres (1,670.60 ft). Previously held by the Petronas Towers 452 m (1,483 ft).</li>
<li><i>Ground to roof:</i> 449.2 m (1,473.75 ft). Formerly held by the Willis Tower 442 m (1,450 ft).</li>
<li><i>Ground to highest occupied floor:</i> 439.2 m (1,440.94 ft). Formerly held by the Willis Tower 412.4 m (1,353 ft).</li>
<li><i>Fastest ascending elevator speed:</i> 16.83 m/s (55.22 ft/s) (60.6 km/h, 37.7 mi/h).</li>
<li><i>Largest countdown clock:</i> On display every New Year's Eve.</li>
<li>Tallest sundial. (See 'Symbolism' below.)</li>
</ul>The record for greatest height from ground to pinnacle remains with the Willis Tower in Chicago (USA): 527 m (1,729 ft). In 2008, the Shanghai World Financial Center overtook Taipei 101 in roof height and highest occupied floor.<br />
<br />
Taipei 101 was the first building in the world to break the half-kilometer mark in height.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-4"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taipei_101#cite_note-4"></a></sup>It was the first "world's tallest building" to be constructed in the new millennium.<br />
<br />
Taipei 101 displaced the Petronas Towers in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, as the tallest building in the world by 57.2 m (188 ft).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-5"></sup> It also displaced the 85-story, 347.5 m (1,140 ft) Tuntex Sky Tower in Kaohsiung as the tallest building in Taiwan and the 51-story, 244.2 m (801 ft) Shin Kong Life Tower as the tallest building in Taipei.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-6"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taipei_101#cite_note-6"></a></sup><br />
<br />
<div class="thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="width: 182px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:101.typhoon.altonthompson.jpg"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="151" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/101.typhoon.altonthompson.jpg/180px-101.typhoon.altonthompson.jpg" width="180" /></a> <br />
<div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify">Taipei 101 endures a typhoon<br />
</div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><br />
</div></div></div>Various sources, including the building's owners,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Awards_3-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taipei_101#cite_note-Awards-3"></a></sup> give the height of Taipei 101 as 508.0 m (1,667 ft), roof height and top floor height as 448.0 m (1,470 ft) and 438.0 m (1,437 ft). This lower figure is derived by measuring from the top of a 1.2 m (4 ft) platform at the base. CTBUH standards, though, include the height of the platform in calculating the overall height, as it represents part of the man-made structure and is above the level of the surrounding pavement.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-7"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taipei_101#cite_note-7"></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-8"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taipei_101#cite_note-8"></a></sup><br />
<h3><span id="Construction">Construction</span></h3><div class="thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="width: 182px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Taipei_101_Tuned_Mass_Damper.png"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="150" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Taipei_101_Tuned_Mass_Damper.png/180px-Taipei_101_Tuned_Mass_Damper.png" width="180" /></a> <br />
<div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify">Location of Taipei 101's largest tuned mass damper.<br />
</div><div class="magnify"><br />
</div></div></div></div><div class="thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="width: 182px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tuned_mass_damper_-_Taipei_101_-_Wikimania_2007_0224.jpg"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="120" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Tuned_mass_damper_-_Taipei_101_-_Wikimania_2007_0224.jpg/180px-Tuned_mass_damper_-_Taipei_101_-_Wikimania_2007_0224.jpg" width="180" /></a> <br />
<div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify">The main tuned mass damper<br />
</div>at top Taipei 101<br />
</div><div class="thumbcaption"><br />
</div></div></div>Taipei 101 is designed to withstand the typhoon winds and earthquake tremors common in its area of the Asia-Pacific. Planners aimed for a structure that could withstand gale winds of 60 m/s (197 ft/s, 216 km/h, 134 mi/h) and the strongest earthquakes likely to occur in a 2,500 year cycle.<br />
<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-brochure_9-0"></sup><br />
<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-brochure_9-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taipei_101#cite_note-brochure-9"></a></sup><br />
<br />
Skyscrapers must be flexible in strong winds yet remain rigid enough to prevent large sideways movement (lateral drift). Flexibility prevents structural damage while resistance ensures comfort for the occupants and protection of glass, curtain walls and other features. Most designs achieve the necessary strength by enlarging critical structural elements such as bracing. The extraordinary height of Taipei 101 combined with the demands of its environment called for additional innovations on the part of engineers.<br />
<br />
The design achieves both strength and flexibility for the tower through the use of high-performance steel construction. Thirty-six columns support Taipei 101, including eight "mega-columns" packed with 10,000-psi concrete.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Floor89PPM_10-0"></sup>Every eight floors, outrigger trusses connect the columns in the building's core to those on the exterior.<br />
<br />
These features combine with the solidity of its foundation to make Taipei 101 one of the most stable buildings ever constructed. The foundation is reinforced by 380 piles driven 80 m (262 ft) into the ground, extending as far as 30 m (98 ft) into the bedrock. Each pile is 1.5 m (5 ft) in diameter and can bear a load of 1,000 metric tons (1,100 short tons) - 1,320 metric tons (1,460 short tons).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Floor89PPM_10-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taipei_101#cite_note-Floor89PPM-10"></a></sup>The stability of the design became evident during construction when, on March 31, 2002, a 6.8-magnitude earthquake rocked Taipei. The tremor was strong enough to topple two construction cranes from the 56th floor, then the highest, and killed five people in the accident. An inspection afterwards showed no structural damage to the building and construction soon resumed.<br />
<br />
Thornton-Tomasetti Engineers along with Evergreen Consulting Engineering designed a 660 metric tons (728 short tons)<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-11"></sup>steel pendulum that serves as a tuned mass damper, at a cost of NT$132 million (US$4 million).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Tuned_Mass_Damper_12-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taipei_101#cite_note-Tuned_Mass_Damper-12"></a></sup>Suspended from the 92nd to the 88th floor, the pendulum sways to offset movements in the building caused by strong gusts. Its sphere, the largest damper sphere in the world, consists of 41 circular steel plates, each with a height of 125 mm (4.92 in) being welded together to form a 5.5 m (18 ft) diameter sphere.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-13"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taipei_101#cite_note-13"></a></sup>Another two tuned mass dampers, each weighing 6 metric tons (7 short tons),<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Tuned_Mass_Damper_12-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taipei_101#cite_note-Tuned_Mass_Damper-12"></a></sup>sit at the tip of the spire. These prevent damage to the structure due to strong wind loads.<br />
<br />
Taipei 101's characteristic blue-green glass curtain walls are double glazed, offer heat and UV protection, and can sustain impacts of 7 metric tons (8 short tons).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-brochure_9-1"></sup><br />
<h3><span id="Symbolism">Symbolism</span></h3><div class="thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="width: 242px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Taipei101.Sundial.jpg"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="373" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Taipei101.Sundial.jpg/240px-Taipei101.Sundial.jpg" width="240" /></a> <br />
<div class="magnify">Shadow of Taipei 101 tower in the late afternoon. The adjoining park (bottom) acts as the face of a sundial.<br />
</div><div class="thumbcaption"><br />
</div></div></div>Taipei 101, like all spire structures, participates in the symbolism of the <i>axis mundi</i>: a world center where earth and sky meet and the four compass directions join.<br />
<br />
The height of 101 floors commemorates the renewal of time: the new century that arrived as the tower was built (100+1) and all the new years that follow (January 1 = 1-01). It symbolizes high ideals by going one better on 100, a traditional number of perfection. The number also evokes the binary numeral system used in digital technology.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Floor89PPM_10-2"> </sup><br />
<br />
The main tower features a series of eight segments of eight floors each. In Chinese-speaking cultures the number eight is associated with abundance, prosperity and good fortune. In cultures that observe a seven-day week the number eight symbolizes a renewal of time (7+1). In digital technology the number eight is associated with the byte, being 8 bits. A bit is the basic unit of information.<br />
<br />
The repeated segments simultaneously recall the rhythms of an Asian pagoda (a tower linking earth and sky, also evoked in the Petronas Towers), a stalk of bamboo (an icon of learning and growth), and a stack of ancient Chinese ingots or money boxes (a symbol of abundance). The four discs mounted on each face of the building where the pedestal meets the tower represent coins. The emblem placed over entrances shows three gold coins of ancient design with central holes shaped to imply the Arabic numerals <i>1-0-1</i>.<br />
<br />
<br />
<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Floor89PPM_10-3"></sup><br />
<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Floor89PPM_10-3"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taipei_101#cite_note-Floor89PPM-10"></a></sup><br />
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width: 142px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:101.ruyi.altonthompson.jpg"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="145" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f7/101.ruyi.altonthompson.jpg/140px-101.ruyi.altonthompson.jpg" width="140" /></a> <br />
<div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify">Ruyi figure over a Taipei 101 entrance<br />
</div><div class="magnify"><br />
</div></div></div></div>Curled <i>ruyi</i> figures appear throughout the structure as a design motif. The ruyi is an ancient symbol associated with heavenly clouds. It connotes healing, protection and fulfilment. It appears in celebrations of the attainment of new career heights.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-14"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taipei_101#cite_note-14"></a></sup>Each ruyi ornament on the exterior of the Taipei 101 tower stands at least 8 m (26 ft) tall. The sweeping curved roof of the adjoining mall culminates in a colossal ruyi that shades pedestrians. Though the shape of each ruyi at Taipei 101 is traditional, its metallic interpretation is plainly modern.<br />
<br />
At night the bright yellow gleam from its pinnacle casts Taipei 101 in the role of a candle or torch upholding the ideals of liberty and welcome. From 6:00 to 10:00 each evening<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-15"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taipei_101#cite_note-15"></a></sup> the tower's lights display one of seven colours in the spectrum. The colours coincide with the days of the week:<br />
<br />
<br />
<center> <br />
<table class="wikitable"><tbody>
<tr> <th>Day<br />
</th> <td>Monday<br />
</td> <td>Tuesday<br />
</td> <td>Wednesday<br />
</td> <td>Thursday<br />
</td> <td>Friday<br />
</td> <td>Saturday<br />
</td> <td>Sunday<br />
</td> </tr>
<tr> <th>Color<br />
</th> <td style="-moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; background: Red none repeat scroll 0% 0%;">Red<br />
</td> <td style="-moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; background: Orange none repeat scroll 0% 0%;">Orange<br />
</td> <td style="-moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; background: Yellow none repeat scroll 0% 0%;">Yellow<br />
</td> <td style="-moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; background: Green none repeat scroll 0% 0%;">Green<br />
</td> <td style="-moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; background: Blue none repeat scroll 0% 0%;">Blue<br />
</td> <td style="-moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; background: Indigo none repeat scroll 0% 0%;">Indigo<br />
</td> <td style="-moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; background: Violet none repeat scroll 0% 0%;">Violet<br />
</td> </tr>
</tbody></table><br />
</center> <br />
The cycle through the spectrum connects the tower with the rich symbolism of rainbows as bridges linking earth to sky and earth's peoples to one another.<br />
<br />
Millennium Park adjoins Taipei 101 on the east and connects the landmark further with the symbolism of time. The design of the circular park allows it to double as the face of a sundial. The tower itself casts the shadow to indicate afternoon hours for the building's occupants. The park's design is echoed in a clock that stands at its entrance. The clock runs on energy drawn from the building's wind shear.<br />
<br />
<div class="thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="width: 282px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Taipei.101.fountain.altonthompson.jpg"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="134" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Taipei.101.fountain.altonthompson.jpg/280px-Taipei.101.fountain.altonthompson.jpg" width="280" /></a> <br />
<div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><i>Feng shui</i> fountain outside Taipei 101<br />
</div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><br />
</div></div></div>Taipei 101, like many of its neighbours, shows the influence of <i>feng shui</i> philosophy. An example appears in the form of a large granite fountain at the intersection of Songlian Road and Xinyi Road near the tower's east entrance.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-16"></sup>A ball at the fountain's top spins toward the tower. As a work of public art, the fountain offers a contrast to the tower in texture even as its design echoes the tower's rhythms. Yet the fountain also serves a practical function in <i>feng shui</i> philosophy. A <i>T</i> intersection near the entrance of a building represents a potential drain of positive energy, or <i>ch'i</i>, from a structure and its occupants. Flowing water placed at such spots remedy the situation by generating a positive inward flow of <i>ch'i</i>. The fountain applies a traditional solution to a traditional challenge yet its design remains modern.<br />
<br />
Taipei 101 merges ancient motifs and ideas with modern techniques and materials. As a landmark it renews the symbolism of all tall towers as cosmic centers. Its interplaying symbols speak of optimism, abundance, and the ever-renewing cycles of time.<br />
<h3><span id="Interior">Interior</span></h3><div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width: 102px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Taipei_101,_panorama_3,_Dec_06.jpg"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="467" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Taipei_101%2C_panorama_3%2C_Dec_06.jpg/100px-Taipei_101%2C_panorama_3%2C_Dec_06.jpg" width="100" /></a> <br />
<div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify">Taipei 101 Mall<br />
</div><div class="magnify"><br />
</div></div></div></div>Taipei 101 is the first record-setting skyscraper to be constructed in the twenty-first century. Appropriately it exhibits a number of technologically advanced features as it provides a center for business and recreation.<br />
The original 2004 fiber-optic and satellite Internet connections permitted transfer speeds up to a gigabyte per second.<br />
<br />
The double-deck elevators built by the Japanese Toshiba Elevator and Building Systems Corporation (TELC) set a new record in 2004 with top ascending speeds of 16.83 m (55.22 ft) per second (60.6 km/h, 37.7 mi/h). This speed is 34.7 percent faster than the previous record holders of the Yokohama Landmark Tower elevator, Yokohama, Japan, which speeds of 12.5 m (41 ft) per second (45.0 km/h, 28.0 mi/h). Taipei 101's elevators sweep visitors from the fifth floor to the 89th-floor observatory in only 37 seconds.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-17"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taipei_101#cite_note-17"></a></sup>Each elevator features an aerodynamic body, full pressurization, state-of-the art emergency braking systems, and the world's first triple-stage anti-overshooting system. The cost for each elevator is NT$80 million (US$2.4 million).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-21"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taipei_101#cite_note-21"></a></sup><br />
<br />
A 660 metric ton (728 short ton) tuned mass damper stabilizes the tower against movements caused by high winds. The damper can reduce up to 40% of the tower's movements .<br />
<br />
The observatories are located in the 91st and 89th floors.<br />
<br />
Two restaurants have opened on the 85th floor: Diamond Tony's, which offers European-style seafood and steak, and Shin Yeh 101 (欣葉), which offers Taiwanese-style cuisine. Occupying all of the 86th floor is Japanese restaurant XEX.<br />
<br />
<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-85F_Restaurant_22-0"></sup><br />
<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-85F_Restaurant_22-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taipei_101#cite_note-85F_Restaurant-22"></a></sup><br />
<br />
The multi-story retail mall adjoining the tower is home to hundreds of fashionable stores, restaurants, clubs and other attractions. The mall's interior is modern in design even as it makes use of traditional elements. The curled <i>ruyi</i> symbol is a recurring motif inside the mall. Many features of the interior also observe <i>feng shui</i> traditions.<br />
<h3><span id="Observatories">Observatories</span></h3>Taipei 101 features an Indoor Observatory (89th floor) and an Outdoor Observatory (91st floor).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-23">[24]</sup> Both offer 360-degree views and attract visitors from around the world.<br />
<br />
The Indoor Observatory stands 383.4 m (1,258 ft) above ground. The elevator, running at 1010 meters per minute, takes visitors from the 5th floor to the 89th floor in 37 seconds. The Indoor Observatory offers a comfortable environment, large windows with UV protection, recorded voice tours in eight languages, and informative displays and special exhibits. Here one may view the skyscraper's main damper, nicknamed "Damper Baby", and buy food, drinks and gift items.<br />
<br />
Two more flights of stairs take visitors up to the Outdoor Observatory. The Outdoor Observatory, at 391.8 m (1,285 ft) above ground, is the second-highest observation deck ever provided in a skyscraper and the highest such platform in Taiwan.<br />
<br />
The Indoor Observatory is open twelve hours a day (10:00 am–10:00 pm) throughout the week as well as on special occasions; the Outdoor Observatory is open during the same hours as weather permits. Tickets may be purchased on site in the shopping mall (5th floor) or in advance through the Observatory's web site .<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-24"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taipei_101#cite_note-24"></a></sup>Tickets cost NT$400 (US$13) and allow access to the 88th through 91st floors via high-speed elevator.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-25"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taipei_101#cite_note-25"></a></sup><br />
<h3><span id="Art">Art</span></h3>Many works of art appear in and around Taipei 101. These include:<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Floor89PPM_10-4"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taipei_101#cite_note-Floor89PPM-10"></a></sup><br />
<ul><li>Rebecca Horn (Germany). <i>Dialogue between Yin and Yang</i>. 2002. Steel, iron.</li>
<li>Robert Indiana (USA). <i>Love</i> and <i>1-0</i>. 2002. Aluminum.</li>
<li>Ariel Moscovici (France). <i>Between Earth and Sky</i>. 2002. Rose de la claret granite.</li>
<li>Chung Pu (Taiwan). <i>Global Circle</i>. 2002. Black granite, white marble.</li>
<li>Jill Watson (Britain). <i>City Composition.</i> 2002. Bronze.</li>
</ul>The Indoor Observatory hosts a regular series of exhibitions. The artists represented include Wu Ching (gold sculpture), Ping-huang Chang (traditional painting) and Po-lin Chi (aerial photography).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-eNewsletter_26-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taipei_101#cite_note-eNewsletter-26"></a></sup><br />
<h3><span id="Tenants">Tenants</span></h3>A number of enterprises maintain offices in Taipei 101. A few that have been featured in public announcements<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-eNewsletter_26-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taipei_101#cite_note-eNewsletter-26"></a></sup> include these:<br />
<ul><li>ABN AMRO Bank, 1/F</li>
<li>Anthony's Group Holding Company Ltd, 37/F</li>
<li>Bayer Taiwan, 53/F - 54/F</li>
<li>The Boston Consulting Group, 61/F</li>
<li>Cosmos Bank, 5th Floor</li>
<li>DBS Bank Ltd, 28/F, Unit B</li>
<li>Emirates Advocates Taiwan (Emirates Trade Commission)</li>
<li>The Executive Centre, 37/F</li>
<li>Fulland Securities Consultant Company Ltd (a Hantec Group subsidiary), 24/F</li>
<li>GoldBank of Taiwan</li>
<li>Google Taiwan, 73/F</li>
<li>HVB Bank</li>
<li>ING Antai</li>
<li>ING SITE (affiliate of Internationale Nederlanden Groep N.V., or ING)</li>
<li>ING SCE (affiliate of Internationale Nederlanden Groep N.V., or ING)</li>
<li>Jones Lang LaSalle</li>
<li>KPMG</li>
<li>McKinsey & Company Taiwan</li>
<li>PeopleSearch Taiwan</li>
<li>People's King</li>
<li>SABIC Asia Pacific Pte Ltd</li>
<li>Starbucks Coffee</li>
<li>Taiwan Ratings Corporation</li>
<li>Taiwan Stock Exchange Corporation (TSEC)</li>
<li>Winterthur Life Taiwan</li>
</ul>Restaurants in the tower include XEX, Diamond Tony's and Shin Yeh 101 (欣葉).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-85F_Restaurant_22-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taipei_101#cite_note-85F_Restaurant-22"></a></sup>Hundreds of international dining establishments and retail outlets also operate in the adjoining mall.<br />
<h3><span id="Chronology">Chronology</span></h3>Important dates in the planning and construction of Taipei 101 include the following:<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Floor89PPM_10-5"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taipei_101#cite_note-Floor89PPM-10"></a></sup><br />
<table class="wikitable"><tbody>
<tr> <th>Date<br />
</th> <th>Event<br />
</th> </tr>
<tr> <td>October 20, 1997<br />
</td> <td>Development and operation rights agreement signed with Taipei City government.<br />
</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>January 13, 1998<br />
</td> <td>Ground-breaking ceremony.<br />
</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>August 10, 1998<br />
</td> <td>Construction license awarded for 101 stories.<br />
</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>April 13, 1999<br />
</td> <td>Design change to 509.2 m height approved by Taipei City government.<br />
</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>June 7, 2000<br />
</td> <td>First tower column erected.<br />
</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>June 13, 2001<br />
</td> <td>Taipei 101 Mall topped out.<br />
</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>May 13, 2003<br />
</td> <td>Taipei 101 Mall obtains occupancy permit.<br />
</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>July 1, 2003<br />
</td> <td>Taipei 101 Tower roof completed.<br />
</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>October 17, 2003<br />
</td> <td>Pinnacle placed.<br />
</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>November 14, 2003<br />
</td> <td>Taipei 101 Mall opens.<br />
</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>April 15, 2004<br />
</td> <td>Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat (CTBUH) certifies Taipei 101 as world's tallest building.<br />
</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>November 12, 2004<br />
</td> <td>Tower obtains occupancy permit.<br />
</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>December 31, 2004<br />
</td> <td>Tower opens to the public.<br />
</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>January 1, 2005<br />
</td> <td>First New Year fireworks show begins at midnight.<br />
</td> </tr>
</tbody></table><h2><span id="History">History</span></h2><div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width: 202px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Taipei101.Park.jpg"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="169" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Taipei101.Park.jpg/200px-Taipei101.Park.jpg" width="200" /></a> <br />
<div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Taipei101.Park.jpg" title="Enlarge"></a><br />
</div>Taipei 101's Millennium Park (seen from the Indoor Observatory, noon)<br />
</div><div class="thumbcaption"><br />
</div></div></div>Planning for Taipei 101 began in 1997 during Chen Shui-bian's term as Taipei mayor. Talks between merchants and city government officials initially centered on a proposal for a 66-story tower to serve as an anchor for new development in Taipei's 101 business district. By the time the ground-breaking ceremony took place on January 13, 1998 planners were considering taking the new structure to a more ambitious height. Ten months later the city granted a license for the construction of a 101-story tower on the site. Construction proceeded and the first tower column was erected in summer 2000.<br />
<br />
Taipei 101's roof was completed three years later on July 1, 2003. Ma Ying-jeou, in his first term as Taipei mayor, fastened a golden bolt to signify the achievement. Three months later the pinnacle was placed.<br />
The formal opening of the tower took place on New Year's Eve 2004. President Chen Shui-bian, Taipei Mayor Ma Ying-jeou and Legislative Speaker Wang Jin-pyng cut the ribbon. Open-air concerts featured a number of popular performers, including singers A-Mei and Sun Yan Zi. Visitors rode the elevators to the Observatory for the first time. A few hours later the first fireworks show at Taipei 101 heralded the arrival of a new year. <br />
<h3><span id="Events">Events</span></h3>Taipei 101 is the site of innumerable special events. Art exhibits, as noted above, regularly take place in the Observatory. A few noteworthy dates since the tower's opening include these.<br />
<ul><li>December 25, 2004 - French rock and urban climber Alain Robert makes an authorized climb to the top of the pinnacle in four hours.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-27"></sup></li>
<li>February 28, 2005 - Former American president Bill Clinton visits and signs copies of his autobiography.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-eNewsletter_26-2"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taipei_101#cite_note-eNewsletter-26"></a></sup></li>
<li>April 19, 2005 - Tower displays the formula <i><b>E=mc<sup>2</sup></b></i> in lights to celebrate the 100th anniversary of the publication of Einstein's theory of relativity. The display, the largest of 65,000 such displays in 47 countries, is part of the international celebration <i>Physics Enlightens the World.</i><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-eNewsletter_26-3"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taipei_101#cite_note-eNewsletter-26"></a></sup></li>
<li>November 20, 2005 - First annual Taipei 101 Run Up features a race up the 2,046 steps from floors 1 to 91. Proceeds benefit Taiwan's Olympic teams. Men's race is won by Paul Crake of Australia (10 minutes, 29 seconds) and women's race by Andrea Mayr of Austria (12 minutes, 38 seconds).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-eNewsletter_26-4"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taipei_101#cite_note-eNewsletter-26"></a></sup></li>
<li>October 20, 2006 - Tower displays a pink ribbon in lights to promote breast cancer awareness. The ten-day campaign is sponsored by Taipei 101's ownership and Estée Lauder.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-eNewsletter_26-5"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taipei_101#cite_note-eNewsletter-26"></a></sup></li>
<li>December 12, 2007 - Austrian base jumper Felix Baumgartner survives an unauthorized parachute jump from Taipei 101's 91st floor.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-28"></sup></li>
<li>June 15, 2008 - Taipei 101 Run Up features 2,500 participants. Men's race is won by Thomas Dold of Germany (10 minutes, 53 seconds); 2007 champion Marco De Gasperi of Italy finishes second and Chen Fu-tsai of Taiwan finishes third. Women's race is won by Lee Hsiao-yu of Taiwan (14 minutes, 53 seconds).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-29"></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-30"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taipei_101#cite_note-30"></a></sup></li>
</ul><h3><span id="New_Year.27s_Eve_fireworks">New Year's Eve fireworks</span></h3>Since 2003, Taipei 101 has turned off the lights from the lower parts to the upper parts to count down for the new year; After 2007, it changed to lighting the building up from the lower parts to the upper parts.<br />
<ul><li>2003–2004: Spinning lights were temporarily placed on the floor 91 for the sound and light show, but no fireworks were used.</li>
<li>2004–2005: The first fireworks display after the building was completed. The whole show last for 35 seconds and the fireworks were shot from a balcony.</li>
<li>2005–2006: Lengthened the time of the fireworks display, from 35 seconds to 128 seconds. Dozens of entertainers attended the 5-hour-long New Year's Eve party. Sony sponsored the event, its advertisement was placed on the building after the fireworks display.</li>
<li>2006–2007: The sponsor was again Sony and the time was extended again, to 188 seconds. The budget for the event was about $1,000,000.</li>
<li>2007–2008: Further expansion, not of the duration, but the number of fireworks. There were 9,000 fireworks used in the previous year, but this year 12,000 were used.</li>
<li>2008–2009: The main theme was "Love Taiwan With Your Heart In 2009". Four colours, red, blue, green and yellow, represented happiness, macroscopic views, sustainability, and passion, respectively.</li>
</ul><h2><span id="Proposed_Projects">Proposed Projects</span></h2><b>Taipei 202</b> (traditional Chinese: <span lang="zh-Hant">臺北202 or 台北202</span>) is a proposed 202-story skyscraper to be built in Taipei, Taiwan. Planners have said that the building may be built in Taipei City's proposed Financial District to be located in the Zhongzheng and Daan districts, or may be built alongside Taipei 101.Gabungan Mahasiswa Kejuruteraanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03438000291098117936noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4269717405423804192.post-53848598413247074582009-10-13T05:57:00.000-07:002009-10-19T06:06:10.366-07:00Burj Dubai - World Tallest Skyscraper<div class="separator" style="clear: both; color: black; text-align: center;"><a href="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/58/Burj_Dubai_20090916.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="640" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/58/Burj_Dubai_20090916.jpg" width="320" /></a><br />
</div><div style="color: black;"><br />
</div><div style="color: black;"><br />
</div><div style="color: black;"><b>Burj Dubai</b> (Arabic: <span lang="ar"><b>برج دبي</b></span> "Dubai Tower"), a supertall skyscraper under construction in Dubai, United Arab Emirates, is the tallest man-made structure ever built, at 818 m (2,684 ft). Construction began on 21 September 2004, and the tower is expected to be completed and ready for occupancy by the end of 2009.<br />
</div><div style="color: black;"><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Emporis_0-2"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Dubai#cite_note-Emporis-0"></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Emaar20080617_5-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Dubai#cite_note-Emaar20080617-5"></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-forbes_6-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Dubai#cite_note-forbes-6"></a></sup><br />
</div><div style="color: black;"><br />
</div><div style="color: black;">The building is part of the 2 km<sup>2</sup> (0.8 sq mi) flagship development called "Downtown Burj Dubai" at the "First Interchange" along Sheikh Zayed Road, near Dubai's main business district. The tower's architect is Adrian Smith, who worked with Skidmore, Owings and Merrill (SOM) until 2006.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Record_High_7-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Dubai#cite_note-Record_High-7"></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-8"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Dubai#cite_note-8"></a></sup>The Chicago-based architecture and engineering firm SOM is in charge of the project.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Record_High_7-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Dubai#cite_note-Record_High-7"></a></sup>The primary builders are Samsung Engineering & Construction and Besix along with Arabtec.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-SkyscraperPage_9-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Dubai#cite_note-SkyscraperPage-9"></a></sup>Turner Construction Company was chosen as the construction manager.<br />
</div><div style="color: black;"><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-10"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Dubai#cite_note-10"></a></sup><br />
</div><div style="color: black;"><br />
</div><div style="color: black;">The total budget for the Burj Dubai project is about US$4.1 billion, and for the entire new "Downtown Dubai", US$20 billion.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-11"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Dubai#cite_note-11"></a></sup>Mohamed Ali Alabbar, the CEO of Emaar Properties, speaking at the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat 8th World Congress, said that the price of office space at Burj Dubai had reached US$4,000 per sq ft (over US$43,000 per m<sup>2</sup>) and that the Armani Residences, also in Burj Dubai, were selling for US$3,500 per sq ft (over US$37,500 per m<sup>2</sup>).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-12"> <br />
</sup><br />
</div><h2 style="color: black;"><span id="Height">Height</span></h2><h3 style="color: black;"><span id="Timeline">Timeline</span></h3><ul style="color: black;"><li>21 September 2004: Emaar contractors begin construction.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-13"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Dubai#cite_note-13"></a></sup></li>
<li>February 2007: Surpasses the Sears Tower (since renamed to the Willis Tower) as the building with the most floors.</li>
<li>13 May 2007: Sets record for vertical concrete pumping on any building at 452 m (1,483 ft), surpassing the 449.2 m (1,474 ft) to which concrete was pumped during the construction of Taipei 101.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-14"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Dubai#cite_note-14"></a></sup></li>
<li>21 July 2007: Surpasses Taipei 101, whose height of 509.2 m (1,671 ft) made it the world’s tallest building.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-official_site_15-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Dubai#cite_note-official_site-15"></a></sup></li>
<li>12 August 2007: Surpasses the Sears Tower (Willis Tower) antenna, which stands 527.3 m (1,730 ft).</li>
<li>3 September 2007: Becomes the second-tallest freestanding structure, surpassing the 540 m (1,772 ft) Ostankino Tower in Moscow.</li>
<li>12 September 2007: At 555.3 m (1,822 ft), becomes the world's tallest freestanding structure, surpassing the CN Tower in Toronto.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-CBC_16-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Dubai#cite_note-CBC-16"></a></sup></li>
<li>7 April 2008: At 629 m (2,064 ft), surpasses the KVLY-TV Mast to become the tallest man-made structure.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Emaar20080407_17-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Dubai#cite_note-Emaar20080407-17"></a></sup></li>
<li>17 June 2008: Emaar announces that Burj Dubai's height is over 636 m (2,087 ft) and that its final height will not be given until it is completed in September 2009.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Emaar20080617_5-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Dubai#cite_note-Emaar20080617-5"></a></sup></li>
<li>1 September 2008: Height tops 688 m (2,257 ft), making it the tallest man-made structure ever built, surpassing the previous record-holder, the Warsaw Radio Mast in Konstantynów, Poland.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-18"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Dubai#cite_note-18"></a></sup></li>
<li>17 January 2009: Topped out at 818 m (2,684 ft).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Biz24720090117_19-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Dubai#cite_note-Biz24720090117-19"></a></sup></li>
<li>1 October 2009: Emaar announces that the exterior of the building is completed.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Maktoob20091001_20-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Dubai#cite_note-Maktoob20091001-20"></a></sup></li>
</ul><h3 style="color: black;"><span id="Current_records">Current records</span></h3><ul style="color: black;"><li>Tallest structure: 818 m (2,684 ft) (previously KVLY-TV mast - 628.8 m (2,063 ft))</li>
<li>Tallest freestanding structure: 818 m (2,684 ft) (previously CN Tower - 553.3 m (1,815 ft))</li>
<li>Building with most floors: 160 (<i>previously World Trade Center - 110</i>)<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-SOM_21-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Dubai#cite_note-SOM-21"></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Baldwin_2-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Dubai#cite_note-Baldwin-2"></a></sup></li>
<li>World's highest elevator installation<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-tbitw_22-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Dubai#cite_note-tbitw-22"></a></sup></li>
<li>Worlds fastest elevators at speed of 64 km/h or 18 m/s (59 ft/s)<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-tbitw_22-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Dubai#cite_note-tbitw-22"></a></sup>(previously Taipei 101 – 16.83 m/s)</li>
<li>Highest vertical concrete pumping (for a building): 601 m (1,972 ft) (previously Taipei 101 - 449.2 m (1,474 ft))</li>
<li>Highest vertical concrete pumping (for any construction): 601 m (1,972 ft)<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Putzmeister_23-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Dubai#cite_note-Putzmeister-23"></a></sup>(previously Riva del Garda Hydroelectric Power Plant - 532 m (1,745 ft)<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-24"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Dubai#cite_note-24"></a></sup>)</li>
<li>The first world's tallest structure in history to include residential space<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Emporis_0-3"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Dubai#cite_note-Emporis-0"></a></sup></li>
</ul><div style="color: black;">Note: Additional records for tallest skyscraper are considered unofficial. On 20 July 2007, the head of the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat (CTBUH), Antony Wood, said "We will not classify it as a building until it is complete, clad and at least partially open for business to avoid things like the Ryungyong [<i>sic</i>] project. Taipei 101 is thus officially the world's tallest until that happens."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-CTBUH_25-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Dubai#cite_note-CTBUH-25"></a></sup><br />
</div><h3 style="color: black;"><span id="History_of_height_increases">History of height increases</span></h3><div class="thumb tright" style="color: black;"><div class="thumbinner" style="width: 182px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BurjDubaiHeight.png"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="128" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/BurjDubaiHeight.png/180px-BurjDubaiHeight.png" width="180" /></a> <br />
<div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify">Burj Dubai compared to some other well-known tall structures.<br />
</div><div class="magnify"><br />
</div></div></div></div><div class="thumb tright" style="color: black;"><div class="thumbinner" style="width: 182px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BurjDubaidawn.JPG"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="101" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/BurjDubaidawn.JPG/180px-BurjDubaidawn.JPG" width="180" /></a> <br />
<div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify">A visual comparison of Burj Dubai's (far right) height with that of surrounding buildings at dusk.<br />
</div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><br />
</div></div></div><div style="color: black;">Though unconfirmed, Burj Dubai has been rumoured to have undergone several planned height increases since its inception. Originally proposed as a virtual clone of the 560 m (1,837 ft) Grollo Tower proposal for Melbourne, Australia's Docklands waterfront development, the tower was redesigned with an original design by Skidmore, Owings and Merrill discussed below. Marshall Strabala, an SOM architect who worked on the project until 2006, recently said that Burj Dubai was designed to be 808 m (2,650 ft) tall.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Height_Revealed_26-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Dubai#cite_note-Height_Revealed-26"></a></sup>However, contradictory information abounds regarding the official height of the building, and it will only acquire the title of world's tallest building upon completion in 2009.<br />
</div><div style="color: black;"><br />
</div><div style="color: black;">The design architect, Adrian Smith, felt that the uppermost section of the building did not culminate elegantly with the rest of the structure, so he sought and received approval to increase it to the currently planned height. It has been explicitly stated that this change did not include any added floors, which is fitting with Smith's attempts to make the crown more slender.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-27"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Dubai#cite_note-27"></a></sup>However, the top of the tower has a steel frame structure, unlike the lower portion's reinforced concrete. The developer, Emaar, has stated this steel section may be extended to beat any other tower to the title of tallest.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact" style="white-space: nowrap;" title="This claim needs references to reliable sources from February 2009"></sup><br />
</div><h3 style="color: black;"><span id="Delay">Delay</span></h3><div style="color: black;">Emaar Properties announced on 9 June 2008 that construction of Burj Dubai was delayed by upgraded finishes and will be completed only in September 2009.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Emaar20080617_5-2"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Dubai#cite_note-Emaar20080617-5"></a></sup>An Emaar spokesperson said "The luxury finishes that were decided on in 2004, when the tower was initially conceptualized, is now being replaced by upgraded finishes. The design of the apartments has also been enhanced to make them more aesthetically attractive and functionally superior."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-28"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Dubai#cite_note-28"></a></sup>A revised completion date of 2 December 2009 has been announced.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-29"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Dubai#cite_note-29"></a></sup><br />
</div><h2 style="color: black;"><span id="Architecture_and_design">Architecture and design</span></h2><div class="thumb tright" style="color: black;"><div class="thumbinner" style="width: 182px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Comparisonfinal001fx7.png"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="101" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Comparisonfinal001fx7.png/180px-Comparisonfinal001fx7.png" width="180" /></a> <br />
<div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify">Supertall cross-section comparisons.<br />
</div><div class="magnify"><br />
</div></div></div></div><div class="thumb tright" style="color: black;"><div class="thumbinner" style="width: 182px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Burj_Dubai_Under_Construction_on_25_January_2008.jpg"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="225" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Burj_Dubai_Under_Construction_on_25_January_2008.jpg/180px-Burj_Dubai_Under_Construction_on_25_January_2008.jpg" width="180" /></a> <br />
<div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Burj_Dubai_Under_Construction_on_25_January_2008.jpg" title="Enlarge"></a><br />
</div>Photo in January 2008 shows the 3-lobed structure.<br />
</div><div class="thumbcaption"><br />
</div></div></div><div class="thumb tright" style="color: black;"><div class="thumbinner" style="width: 182px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Spiderlily.jpg"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="123" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/14/Spiderlily.jpg/180px-Spiderlily.jpg" width="180" /></a> <br />
<div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Spiderlily.jpg" title="Enlarge"></a><br />
</div>A Hymenocallis flower showing 6 spokes, as pattern for the 3-lobed design.<br />
</div><div class="thumbcaption"><br />
</div></div></div><div style="color: black;">The tower is designed by Skidmore, Owings and Merrill, which also designed the Willis Tower in Chicago, Illinois and 1 World Trade Center in New York City, among numerous other famous high-rises. The building resembles the bundled tube form of the Willis Tower, but is not a tube structure. Its design is reminiscent of Frank Lloyd Wright's vision for The Illinois, a mile high skyscraper designed for Chicago.<br />
</div><div style="color: black;"><br />
</div><div style="color: black;">According to Marshall Strabala, an SOM architect who worked on the building's design team, Burj Dubai was designed based on the 73-floor "Tower Palace Three", an all-residential building in Seoul, South Korea. In its early planning, Burj Dubai was intended to be entirely residential.<br />
</div><div style="color: black;"><br />
</div><div style="color: black;"><br />
</div><div style="color: black;"><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Height_Revealed_26-1"></sup><br />
</div><div style="color: black;"><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Height_Revealed_26-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Dubai#cite_note-Height_Revealed-26"></a></sup><br />
</div><div style="color: black;"><br />
</div><div style="color: black;">Emaar Properties has also engaged GHD,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-GHD_Projects_30-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Dubai#cite_note-GHD_Projects-30"></a></sup>an international multidisciplinary consulting firm, to assist with the design, review and assessment involved in the construction process.<br />
</div><div style="color: black;"><br />
</div><div style="color: black;">The design of Burj Dubai is derived from patterning systems embodied in Islamic architecture, with the triple-lobed footprint of the building based on an abstracted version of the flower Hymenocallis.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Baldwin_2-2"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Dubai#cite_note-Baldwin-2"></a></sup>The tower is composed of three elements arranged around a central core. As the tower rises from the flat desert base, setbacks occur at each element in an upward spiralling pattern, decreasing the cross section of the tower as it reaches toward the sky. There are 26 terraces in Burj Dubai. At the top, the central core emerges and is sculpted to form a finishing spire. A Y-shaped floor plan maximizes views of the Persian Gulf. Viewed from above or from the base, the form also evokes the onion domes of Islamic architecture. During the design process, engineers rotated the building 120 degrees from its original layout to reduce stress from prevailing winds. At its tallest point, the tower sways a total of 1.2 m (3.9 ft).<br />
</div><div style="color: black;"><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Baldwin_2-3"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Dubai#cite_note-Baldwin-2"></a></sup><br />
</div><div style="color: black;"><br />
</div><div style="color: black;">To wash the 162 floors of habitable space of Burj Dubai, a horizontal track has been installed on the exterior of Burj Dubai at three levels 40, 73 and 109. Each track holds a 1,500 tonne bucket machine which moves horizontally and then vertically using heavy cables. The first of the 18 buckets is being tested on the south side of the Burj Dubai at level 40. The top of the spire, however,is reserved for specialist window cleaners, who brave the heights and high winds dangling by ropes to clean the top panels.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-31"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Dubai#cite_note-31"></a></sup><br />
</div><div style="color: black;"><br />
</div><div style="color: black;">More than 1,000 pieces of art will adorn the interiors of Burj Dubai, while the lobby of Burj Dubai will have the artwork of 196 bronze and brass alloy cymbals representing the 196 countries of the world. The visitors in the lobby will be able to hear a distinct timbre as the cymbals, plated with 18-carat gold, are struck by dripping water, intended to mimic the sound of water falling on leaves.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-dc_32-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Dubai#cite_note-dc-32"></a></sup><br />
</div><div style="color: black;"><br />
</div><div style="color: black;">A total of 24,348 pieces of cladding have been installed, with the last piece, spanning six-metres in length, yet to be installed.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-dc_32-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Dubai#cite_note-dc-32"></a></sup><br />
</div><div style="color: black;">The exterior cladding of Burj Dubai will consist of 142,000 m<sup>2</sup> (1,528,000 sq ft) of reflective glazing, and aluminium and textured stainless steel spandrel panels with vertical tubular fins. The cladding system is designed to withstand Dubai's extreme summer temperatures. Additionally, at its projected height the exterior temperature at the top of the building will be 6 °C (11 °F) cooler than at its base.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-33"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Dubai#cite_note-33"></a></sup><br />
</div><div style="color: black;"><br />
</div><div style="color: black;">The interior will be decorated by Giorgio Armani. An Armani Hotel, the first of four by Armani, will occupy the lower 37 floors.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-34"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Dubai#cite_note-34"></a></sup>Floors 45 through 108 will have 700 private apartments on 64 floors (which, according to the developer, sold out within eight hours of being on the market). An outdoor zero-entry swimming pool will be located on the 78th floor of the tower. Corporate offices and suites will fill most of the remaining floors, except for a 123rd floor lobby and 124th floor (about 440 m (1,444 ft)) indoor/outdoor observation deck. The spire, itself over 200 m (700 ft) tall, will hold communications equipment.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact" style="white-space: nowrap;" title="This claim needs references to reliable sources from August 2008"></sup>Burj Dubai is expected to hold up to 35,000 people at any one time.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-35"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Dubai#cite_note-35"></a></sup>A total of 56 elevators will be installed, the fastest rising and descending at up to 10 m/s (33 ft/s).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-36"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Dubai#cite_note-36"></a></sup>Engineers had considered installing the world's first triple-deck elevators, but the final design calls for double-deck elevators.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Emporis_0-4"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Dubai#cite_note-Emporis-0"></a></sup><br />
</div><div style="color: black;"><br />
</div><div style="color: black;">The graphic design identity work for the Burj Dubai is the responsibility of Brash Brands, who are based in Dubai. Design of the global launch events, communications, and visitors centers<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-37"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Dubai#cite_note-37"> </a></sup>for the Burj Dubai have also been created by Brash Brands as well as the roadshow exhibition for the Armani Residences, which are part of the Armani Hotel within the Burj Dubai, which toured Milan, London, Jeddah, Moscow and Delhi.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-38"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Dubai#cite_note-38"></a></sup><br />
</div><h3 style="color: black;"><span id="Dubai_Fountain">Dubai Fountain</span></h3><div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle" style="color: black;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dubai_Fountain" title="Dubai Fountain"></a><br />
</div><div style="color: black;"><span style="color: black;">Outside, and at a cost of Dh 800 million (US$217 million), a record-setting fountain system was designed by </span>WET Design<span style="color: black;">, the </span>California<span style="color: black;">-based company responsible for the fountains at the </span>Bellagio Hotel<span style="color: black;"> Lake in </span>Las Vegas<span style="color: black;">. Illuminated by 6,600 lights and 50 colored projectors, it is 275 m (900 ft) long and is shooting water 150 m (490 ft) into the air, accompanied by a range of classical to contemporary Arabic and world music.</span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-39" style="color: black;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Dubai#cite_note-39"></a></sup><span style="color: black;">On 26 October 2008 Emaar announced that based on results of a naming contest the fountain would be called the Dubai Fountain.</span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-40"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Dubai#cite_note-40"></a></sup><br />
</div><h2 style="color: black;"><span id="Construction">Construction</span></h2><div class="floatright" style="color: black;"><div class="thumbinner" style="width: 202px;"><div><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Burj_Dubai_Evolution.ogv" title="Concept of the monthly construction"><img alt="Concept of the monthly construction" height="150" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Burj_Dubai_Evolution.ogv/mid-Burj_Dubai_Evolution.ogv.jpg" width="200" /></a><br />
</div><div><button onclick="if (typeof(wgOggPlayer) != 'undefined') wgOggPlayer.init(false, {"id": "ogg_player_1", "videoUrl": "http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/00/Burj_Dubai_Evolution.ogv", "width": 200, "height": 150, "length": 249, "offset": 0, "linkUrl": "/wiki/File:Burj_Dubai_Evolution.ogv", "isVideo": true});" style="text-align: center; width: 200px;" title="Play video"><img alt="Play video" height="22" src="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/extensions/OggHandler/play.png" width="22" /></button><br />
</div><br />
</div><div class="thumbinner" style="width: 202px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Burj_dubai_aerial_closeup.jpg"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="299" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Burj_dubai_aerial_closeup.jpg/200px-Burj_dubai_aerial_closeup.jpg" width="200" /></a> <br />
<div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Burj_dubai_aerial_closeup.jpg" title="Enlarge"></a><br />
</div>Burj Dubai aerial closeup in March 2008.<br />
</div><div class="thumbcaption"><br />
</div></div></div><div class="thumb tright" style="color: black;"></div><div style="color: black;">The tower is being constructed by a South Korean company, Samsung Engineering & Construction, which also built the Petronas Twin Towers and the Taipei 101.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Samsung_E.26C_41-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Dubai#cite_note-Samsung_E.26C-41"></a></sup>Samsung Engineering & Construction is building the tower in a joint venture with Besix from Belgium and Arabtec from UAE. Turner is the Project Manager on the main construction contract.<br />
</div><div style="color: black;"><br />
</div><div style="color: black;">The primary structural system of Burj Dubai is reinforced concrete. Over 45,000 m<sup>3</sup> (58,900 cu yd) of concrete, weighing more than 110,000 tonnes (120,000 ST; 110,000 LT) were used to construct the concrete and steel foundation, which features 192 piles buried more than 50 m (164 ft) deep.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Emporis_0-5"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Dubai#cite_note-Emporis-0"></a></sup>When completed, Burj Dubai's construction will have used 330,000 m<sup>3</sup> (431,600 cu yd) of concrete and 39,000 tonnes (43,000 ST; 38,000 LT) of steel rebar, and construction will have taken 22 million man-hours.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Record_High_7-2"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Dubai#cite_note-Record_High-7"></a></sup><br />
</div><div style="color: black;"><br />
</div><div style="color: black;">As construction of the tower progressed, it became increasingly difficult to vertically pump the thousands of cubic metres of concrete that were required. The previous record for pumping concrete on any project was set during the extension of the Riva del Garda Hydroelectric Power Plant in Italy in 1994, when concrete was pumped to a height of 532 m (1,745 ft). Burj Dubai exceeded this height on 19 August 2007, and as of 8 November 2007 concrete was pumped to a delivery height of 601 m (1,972 ft).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Putzmeister_23-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Dubai#cite_note-Putzmeister-23"></a></sup><br />
</div><div style="color: black;"><br />
</div><div style="color: black;">In Burj Dubai, concrete was pumped to the 156th floor, while the remaining structure was built of lighter steel. Burj Dubai is highly compartmentalised, with refuge floors built every 30 floors, where people can shelter on their long walk down to safety in case of an emergency.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-42"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Dubai#cite_note-42"></a></sup><br />
</div><div style="color: black;"><br />
</div><div style="color: black;">Special mixes of concrete are made to withstand the extreme pressures of the massive building weight; as is typical with reinforced concrete construction, each batch of concrete used was tested to ensure it could withstand certain pressures.<br />
</div><div style="color: black;"><br />
</div><div style="color: black;">The consistency of the concrete used in the project was essential. It was difficult to create a concrete that could withstand both the thousands of tonnes bearing down on it and Persian Gulf temperatures that can reach 50 °C (122 °F). To combat this problem, the concrete was not poured during the day. Instead, ice was added to the mixture and it was poured at night when the air is cooler and the humidity is higher. A cooler concrete mixture cures evenly throughout and is therefore less likely to set too quickly and crack. Any significant cracks could have put the entire project in jeopardy.<br />
</div><div style="color: black;"><br />
</div><div style="color: black;">The unique design and engineering challenges of building Burj Dubai have been featured in a number of television documentaries, including the <i>Big, Bigger, Biggest</i> series on the National Geographic and Five channels, and the <i>Mega Builders</i> series on the Discovery Channel.<br />
</div><h2 style="color: black;"><span id="Floor_plans">Floor plans</span></h2><div style="color: black;">The following is a breakdown of floors as noted by Glasssteelandstone.com <sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-43"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Dubai#cite_note-43"></a></sup><br />
</div><table class="wikitable" style="color: black;"><tbody>
<tr> <th>Floors<br />
</th> <th>Use<br />
</th> </tr>
<tr> <td>160-206<br />
</td> <td>Mechanical<br />
</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>156-159<br />
</td> <td>Transmission<br />
</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>155<br />
</td> <td>Mechanical<br />
</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>139-154<br />
</td> <td>Office<br />
</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>136-138<br />
</td> <td>Mechanical<br />
</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>125-135<br />
</td> <td>Office<br />
</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>124<br />
</td> <td>Observatory<br />
</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>111-123<br />
</td> <td>Office<br />
</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>109-110<br />
</td> <td>Mechanical<br />
</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>76-108<br />
</td> <td>Residential<br />
</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>73-75<br />
</td> <td>Mechanical<br />
</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>43-72<br />
</td> <td>Residential<br />
</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>40-42<br />
</td> <td>Mechanical<br />
</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>19-39<br />
</td> <td>Hotel<br />
</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>17-18<br />
</td> <td>Mechanical<br />
</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>5-16<br />
</td> <td>Hotel<br />
</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>4<br />
</td> <td>Hotel, Mechanical<br />
</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>3<br />
</td> <td>Hotel, restaurant<br />
</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>2<br />
</td> <td>Hotel, lobby<br />
</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>1<br />
</td> <td>Hotel, lobby, restaurant<br />
</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>Concourse<br />
</td> <td>Restaurant, lobby<br />
</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>B1-B2<br />
</td> <td>Parking, Mechanical<br />
</td> </tr>
</tbody></table><h2 style="color: black;"><span id="Labour_controversy">Labour controversy</span></h2><div class="rellink boilerplate further" style="color: black;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" title="Human rights in the United Arab Emirates"></a><br />
</div><div style="color: black;">Burj Dubai is being built primarily by poor immigrants from South Asia.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Riot_44-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Dubai#cite_note-Riot-44"></a></sup>Press reports indicated in 2006 that skilled carpenters at the site earned UK£4.34 a day, and labourers earned UK£2.84.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Riot_44-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Dubai#cite_note-Riot-44"></a></sup><br />
</div><div style="color: black;"><br />
</div><div style="color: black;">On 21 March 2006, about 2,500 workers upset over buses that were delayed for the end of their shifts rioted, damaging cars, offices, computers, and construction equipment.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Riot_44-2"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Dubai#cite_note-Riot-44"></a></sup>A Dubai Interior Ministry official said the rioters caused almost UK£500,000 in damage.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Riot_44-3"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Dubai#cite_note-Riot-44"></a></sup>Most of the workers involved in the riot returned the following day but refused to work.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Riot_44-4"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Dubai#cite_note-Riot-44"></a></sup><br />
</div><div style="color: black;"><br />
</div><div style="color: black;">As of 17 June 2008 there are 7,500 skilled workers employed in the construction of Burj Dubai.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Emaar20080617_5-3"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Dubai#cite_note-Emaar20080617-5"></a></sup><br />
</div><h2 style="color: black;"><span id="Purpose">Purpose</span></h2><div style="color: black;">Burj Dubai has been designed to be the centerpiece of a large-scale, mixed-use development that will include 30,000 homes, nine hotels such as the Burj Dubai Lake Hotel & Serviced Apartments, 3 hectares (7.4 acres) of parkland, at least 19 residential towers, the Dubai Mall, and the 12-hectare (30-acre) man-made Burj Dubai Lake.<br />
</div><div style="color: black;"><br />
</div><div style="color: black;">The building has returned the title of Earth's tallest free-standing structure to the Middle East—a title not held by the region since 1311 when Lincoln Cathedral in England surpassed the height of the Great Pyramid of Giza, which had held the title for almost four millennia.<br />
</div><div style="color: black;"><br />
</div><div style="color: black;">The decision to build Burj Dubai is reportedly based on the government's decision to diversify from an oil-based economy to one that is service- and tourism-oriented. According to officials, it is necessary for projects like Burj Dubai to be built in the city to garner more international recognition, and hence investment. "He [Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum] wanted to put Dubai on the map with something really sensational," said Jacqui Josephson, a tourism and VIP delegations executive at Nakheel Properties.<br />
<br />
<h2><span id="Progression_of_the_construction_of_Burj_Dubai">Progression of the construction of Burj Dubai</span><span id="Progression_of_the_construction_of_Burj_Dubai"> <br />
</span></h2><br />
<br />
<center> <br />
<br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="gallery" height="326" style="width: 611px;"><tbody>
<tr> <td><div class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px;"><div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0pt; width: 150px;"><div style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 120px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Burj2.jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Burj2.jpg/90px-Burj2.jpg" width="90" /></a><br />
</div></div><div class="gallerytext"><br />
<br />
<center>1 February 2006</center> <br />
</div></div></td> <td><div class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px;"><div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0pt; width: 150px;"><div style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 120px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:20060829_Burj_Dubai.jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/20060829_Burj_Dubai.jpg/90px-20060829_Burj_Dubai.jpg" width="90" /></a><br />
</div></div><div class="gallerytext"><br />
<br />
<center>29 August 2006</center> <br />
</div></div></td> <td><div class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px;"><div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0pt; width: 150px;"><div style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 120px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Burjdubaifeb2107.jpg"><img alt="" height="89" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Burjdubaifeb2107.jpg/120px-Burjdubaifeb2107.jpg" width="120" /></a><br />
</div></div><div class="gallerytext"><br />
<br />
<center>21 March 2007</center> <br />
</div></div></td> <td><div class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px;"><div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0pt; width: 150px;"><div style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 120px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Burj_Dubai_20071204.jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Burj_Dubai_20071204.jpg/81px-Burj_Dubai_20071204.jpg" width="81" /></a><br />
</div></div><div class="gallerytext"><br />
<br />
<center>4 December 2007</center> <br />
</div></div></td> </tr>
<tr> <td><div class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px;"><div class="thumb" style="padding: 33px 0pt; width: 150px;"><div style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 120px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Burj_dubai_3.11.08.jpg"><img alt="" height="80" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Burj_dubai_3.11.08.jpg/120px-Burj_dubai_3.11.08.jpg" width="120" /></a><br />
</div></div><div class="gallerytext"><br />
<br />
<center> 11 March 2008</center> <br />
</div></div></td> <td><div class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px;"><div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0pt; width: 150px;"><div style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 120px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2008-10-26_burjdubai.jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/2008-10-26_burjdubai.jpg/32px-2008-10-26_burjdubai.jpg" width="32" /></a><br />
</div></div><div class="gallerytext"><br />
<br />
<center>26 October 2008</center> <br />
</div></div></td> <td><div class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px;"><div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0pt; width: 150px;"><div style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 120px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Burj_Dubai_20090104.jpg"><img alt="" height="119" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Burj_Dubai_20090104.jpg/61px-Burj_Dubai_20090104.jpg" width="61" /></a><br />
</div></div><div class="gallerytext"><br />
<br />
<center>4 January 2009</center> <br />
</div></div></td> <td><div class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px;"><div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0pt; width: 150px;"><div style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 120px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BurjDubaiJI3.jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/BurjDubaiJI3.jpg/56px-BurjDubaiJI3.jpg" width="56" /></a><br />
</div></div><div class="gallerytext"><br />
<br />
<center>20 March 2009 <br />
</center> <br />
</div></div></td></tr>
</tbody></table><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: left;">souce : wikipedia <br />
<br />
</div></center><br />
</div>Gabungan Mahasiswa Kejuruteraanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03438000291098117936noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4269717405423804192.post-36269469817691699972009-09-15T12:52:00.000-07:002009-10-19T05:59:24.110-07:001 Malaysia Song From AMP All Stars<object width="560" height="340"><param name="movie" value="http://www.youtube.com/v/Nv7V4n6pOLE&hl=en&fs=1&"></param><param name="allowFullScreen" value="true"></param><param name="allowscriptaccess" value="always"></param><embed src="http://www.youtube.com/v/Nv7V4n6pOLE&hl=en&fs=1&" type="application/x-shockwave-flash" allowscriptaccess="always" allowfullscreen="true" width="560" height="340"></embed></object>Gabungan Mahasiswa Kejuruteraanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03438000291098117936noreply@blogger.com5tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4269717405423804192.post-33516550030494937312009-09-15T11:33:00.000-07:002009-09-28T04:47:39.714-07:00Unisel Winning Best Concrete Canoe' on JPS Concrete Canoe' Competition 2007Best Concrete Canoe’ - JPS Concrete Canoe’ Competition 2007 with weight less than 60kg.Gabungan Mahasiswa Kejuruteraanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03438000291098117936noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4269717405423804192.post-78777830834960530932009-09-15T11:17:00.000-07:002009-09-28T04:47:39.715-07:00Unisel Winning Second Place on Malaysia SiswaSAT Competiton 2008Second edition of Malaysia SiswaSat Program had been successfully completed on December 2008 with the end of final lauching which took place on 16-18 December 2008 at International Islamic Unversity Malaysia, IIUM, Gombak, Selangor. The participated universities are Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Islamic International University of Malaysia (IIUM), Universiti Pertahanan Nasional Malaysia (UPNM), Universiti Industri Selangor (UNISEL), Multimedia University (MMU), Universiti Teknologi Petronas (UTP), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM) and Universiti Kuala Lumpur (UNIKL).<br /><br />Winners<br /><br />1st Place : Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM)<br />2nd Place : Universiti Industri Selangor (UNISEL)<br />3rd Place : Islamic International University of Malaysia (IIUM)<br />Best CanSat Design : Universiti Pertahanan Nasional Malaysia (UPNM)<br />Best Mission : Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM)<br />Best Team : Universiti Kuala Lumpur (UNIKL)Gabungan Mahasiswa Kejuruteraanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03438000291098117936noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4269717405423804192.post-81929437794501951402009-09-15T10:58:00.000-07:002009-09-28T04:47:39.715-07:00Unisel Winning First Place on Malaysia SiswaSAT Competiton 2007First edition of Malaysia SiswaSat Program had been successfully completed on January 2008 with the end of final demonstration which took place on 31st January 2008 at National Space Center, Banting, Selangor. For this pilot project , invitation had been addressed to 10 universities around Klang Valley; public and private universities and 8 of them had responded positively to participate on this activity. The participated universities are Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Islamic International University of Malaysia (IIUM), Universiti Pertahanan Nasional Malaysia (UPNM), Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM), Universiti Industri Selangor (UNISEL), Multimedia University (MMU), Universiti Tenaga Nasional (UNITEN) and Universiti Kuala Lumpur (UNIKL). <div><div><div></div><div>Winners</div><div> </div><div></div><div></div><div>1st Place : Universiti Industri Selangor (UNiSSAT V.1) UNiSSAT V.1 mission are to capture, process, store and transmit multiple images which fully operated under supervision of Launch Control Officer (LCO). The main payload of the UNiSSAT V.1 is a CMOS digital camera with other additional sensors such as temperature, pressure sensor and GPS. Below are the images that successfully been captured by UNiSSAT V. </div><div></div><br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjXhc6n3rqqDaWnmuDIPJGBCl0fDwUZppDIaXQcQUsyDU0B6XtfA-U7xjr8FhQ6yMOdY4R8I48JKiubQDqf2rE7R99QU70rveFOqupI1frYYcOjAM91a4CsmDDuBSg5PzUyixXatjxbLBXd/s1600-h/unisel3.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5381759049077734322" style="WIDTH: 170px; CURSOR: hand; HEIGHT: 120px" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjXhc6n3rqqDaWnmuDIPJGBCl0fDwUZppDIaXQcQUsyDU0B6XtfA-U7xjr8FhQ6yMOdY4R8I48JKiubQDqf2rE7R99QU70rveFOqupI1frYYcOjAM91a4CsmDDuBSg5PzUyixXatjxbLBXd/s400/unisel3.jpg" border="0" /></a><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEikGr4VZI_tNU-aE_n6bmzy5WrNIceNhzjZoq2_H5F1bJhyrI209i6J4ewRP9g2ZK23gtMYAOUBgH9hHwvNB79Y6E0r-1ytDOIC_NNr3yGM8anWYYz4KRJ99QNYtsWcG-7n5LakHgazsp0l/s1600-h/unisel1.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5381759031669468210" style="WIDTH: 182px; CURSOR: hand; HEIGHT: 119px" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEikGr4VZI_tNU-aE_n6bmzy5WrNIceNhzjZoq2_H5F1bJhyrI209i6J4ewRP9g2ZK23gtMYAOUBgH9hHwvNB79Y6E0r-1ytDOIC_NNr3yGM8anWYYz4KRJ99QNYtsWcG-7n5LakHgazsp0l/s400/unisel1.jpg" border="0" /></a><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEicQA1LvsqbsL7rhC4oHa99w411arO45hGct0hFqK2IgW310ZLS2P4y3H2XNnn8Pza6vP56tWVcFoCYF1u0qR-yJj5xuzBr4OEveX8LMHXOazjaGRtiAimZaYmWJ_OJKQbHqvYSDLcekRaa/s1600-h/unisel2.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5381759039359904578" style="WIDTH: 171px; CURSOR: hand; HEIGHT: 119px" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEicQA1LvsqbsL7rhC4oHa99w411arO45hGct0hFqK2IgW310ZLS2P4y3H2XNnn8Pza6vP56tWVcFoCYF1u0qR-yJj5xuzBr4OEveX8LMHXOazjaGRtiAimZaYmWJ_OJKQbHqvYSDLcekRaa/s400/unisel2.jpg" border="0" /></a><br /><br /><div></div><div>2nd Place : Multimedia University (MMUSat)The main objective of MMUSat is to show that the design of a small inexpensive data telemetry system is possible and could be a platform for the future design and implementation of earth orbiting spacecrafts. The system will have both receiving and transmitting capabilities and will be incorporated with an accelerometer, a light intensity sensor, a temperature and humidity sensor, a Global Positioning System and a wireless video camera.Primary mission of MMUSat is to act as a weather monitoring system where all the sensors used will be able to gather the information about the weather condition of the area where the satellite is descending. Meanwhile the secondary mission of MMUSat would be to act as an imaging and navigation satellite. The camera will provide continuous video streaming of the surrounding area where the satellite is deployed while the GPS will act as a navigational tool.<br /></div><div> </div><div>3rd Place : Islamic International University of Malaysia<br />Best CanSat Design : Universiti Pertahanan Nasional Malaysia </div></div></div>Gabungan Mahasiswa Kejuruteraanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03438000291098117936noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4269717405423804192.post-35512468318795438222009-09-15T10:52:00.000-07:002009-11-01T01:19:35.584-08:00Unisel Winning Second Runner Up on Perodua Eco-Challenge 2009<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhVIegb69eEPLAVKoitN_5bnf3LN_sft-eIE3qZUcN2Zd6qTDptjzXGoTo8GU-nIRCDLGJHDN5RmUBpH717tXP3f1zzIWGQOhUEzIVQYNBlNjV5OtsfyRZliwHNWWlZnZFfc7Ssx4zut4xf/s1600-h/myvi+unisel.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhVIegb69eEPLAVKoitN_5bnf3LN_sft-eIE3qZUcN2Zd6qTDptjzXGoTo8GU-nIRCDLGJHDN5RmUBpH717tXP3f1zzIWGQOhUEzIVQYNBlNjV5OtsfyRZliwHNWWlZnZFfc7Ssx4zut4xf/s400/myvi+unisel.jpg" vr="true" /></a><br />
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br />
</div>More recently, UNISEL participated in the Perodua Eco-Challenge. which was held last month June 18-20th. A team of 12 students (nine from the Engineering programme and three from Automotive Design) — lead by Associate Professor Ir Muhidin Arifin and seven staff members — was placed third in the Manual Transmission category of the recent Perodua competition.Race.<br />
<br />
Malaysian car manufacturer Perodua (Perusahaan Otomobil Kedua Sdn Bhd) had arranged for a modified Myvi 1.3 SE car rally at the Speedway PLUS Circuit in Subang Jaya to encourage the development of cars with less pollution and emissions, in line with the country’s strategy to be an ecologically sustainable environment.The event was to create public awareness of the need to reduce the environmental impact of exhaust emissions through focused driving in a fuel-efficient vehicle. “It was an opportunity to test whether or not students could respond to local industry’s challenge to reduce the impact of emissions and to improve petrol consumption.”<br />
<br />
Selected students at local universities competed in the car rally after modifying a Myvi 1.3 SE. Based on submitted modification proposals, twelve 12 universities, which included UiTM Universiti Teknologi Mara and UNITEN Universiti Tenaga Nasional, were selected out of a total of 21 participating universities learning institutions.The chosen universities, which also included UNISEL, had each received a development funding of RM10,000 with a Perodua Myvi 1.3 SE car to be modified. Each university proposed different solutions.<br />
<br />
“It was an opportunity for students to work with a real product; it was multidimensional and multidisciplinary.”<br />
<br />
The UNISEL’s team also received RM5,000 for achieving a fuel efficiency of 23.6km per litre of Petronas Ron 97 gasoline after modifications to the Perodua Myvi. And this included a reduction in the mass and height of the car.<br />
<br />
“For weight reduction, materials used were different from the traditional metals.<br />
<br />
“A height reduction for safe driving was made to facilitate the taking of corners.”<br />
<br />
There were modifications to its cold air intake, to its fuel magnet, air fuel controller, firing and ignition system, customised fuel tank, nitrogen gas tires tyres, aluminum crank pulley and to the vehicle’s voltage stabiliser.<br />
<br />
“They controlled the car engine’s air intake and made its ignition more efficient to improve the car’s combustion.” These modifications were attained at an additional outlay of RM20,000.<br />
<br />
“We were given a tight budget and a fixed schedule to complete the changes. It is experiential learning and we like to have more of this methodology and approach.”Gabungan Mahasiswa Kejuruteraanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03438000291098117936noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4269717405423804192.post-45501001482326392612009-09-15T10:41:00.000-07:002009-11-01T01:25:47.542-08:00Unisel Winning First Place on The Formula Varsity 2009<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgfwVCi1YMruZjkpTwonxdgcGS_-blqHKnbZ9Y7x1ZbocPTlHsAV7nUbRtzKxhhmsk1xOCElcLCRoZD6EzRac6YVZBCdPVkz0F6ES-KWb9-KsuH5gNqcu5tE5IPePWO3xUUUmDavXNl4MRU/s1600-h/v-1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgfwVCi1YMruZjkpTwonxdgcGS_-blqHKnbZ9Y7x1ZbocPTlHsAV7nUbRtzKxhhmsk1xOCElcLCRoZD6EzRac6YVZBCdPVkz0F6ES-KWb9-KsuH5gNqcu5tE5IPePWO3xUUUmDavXNl4MRU/s320/v-1.jpg" vr="true" /></a><br />
</div><br />
SHAH ALAM, 28 Julai - Universiti Industri Selangor (UNISEL) buat julung kalinya melakar sejarah bergelar juara dalam pertandingan Formula Varsity Race 2009 yang berlangsung pada 25 Julai lalu, di Litar Dato’ Sagor, Pasir Salak, Perak.<br />
<br />
Pertandingan anjuran Pertubuhan Pelajar-pelajar Kejuruteraan Mekanikal (MESA), memberi kemenangan besar kepada Unisel dan menjadi titik permulaan untuk meneroka lebih jauh dalam penghasilan kenderaan otomotif.<br />
<br />
Timbalan Naib Canselor Akademik Unisel, Profesor Dr Anuar Ahmad berkata, pertandingan ini secara tidak langsung memberi peluang kepada pelajar dan pensyarah menghasilkan rekaan yang inovatif.<br />
<br />
“Kesemua department sivil, mekanikal dan elektrikal telah membuktikan keupayaan mereka untuk memenangi bukan sahaja di peringkat antarabangsa, sekaligus merealisasikan cita-cita Unisel untuk menjadi sebuah universiti terkemuka di rantau,” katanya.<br />
<br />
Dr Anuar berkata demikian dalam sidang media di kampus Shah Alam Seksyen 7, hari ini.<br />
Katanya, menerusi pertandingan ini, pelajar didedahkan dengan kaedah pembuatan struktur kenderaan, modifikasi enjin, pembentukan badan kenderaan, tahap kecekapan dan kelajuan enjin, secara berkumpulan.<br />
<br />
Sementara itu, Dekan Fakulti Kejuruteraan, Profesor Ir Dr Jamaludin Mat berkata, kemenangan ini membuktikan kejayaan Unisel dan kerjasama mantap tenaga pengajar dan pelajar.<br />
<br />
“Kami sebenarnya rasa tertekan, masa kami sampai, sebab apa kita rasa tak bersedia dari serba-serbi, team lain adalah kali ketiga, dan kami harus bersaing dengan mereka yang telah hebat, namun kejayaan ini membuktikan kerjasama penting dalam kumpulan,” katanya.<br />
<br />
Kereta lumba yang dinamakan ‘UNISEL V-1’ ini menggunakan enjin Modenas Kriss 110cc yang telah diubahsuai mengikut kapasiti, struktur, panjang dan berat kereta serta diperbuat daripada bahan besi ringan dan komposit.<br />
<br />
Bertemakan Educational Innovation of Motorsports and Automotive Race atau EIMA-Race 2009, pertandingan ini disertai 9 institusi pendidikan antaranya, Politeknik Sultan Salahuddin Abdul Aziz Shah, Institut Kemahiran MARA Lumut, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia dan Universiti Tun Hussein Onn.<br />
<br />
Dalam pada itu, peserta-peserta yang ditemui teruja dengan kemenangan ini dan menganggap ia suatu yang membanggakan kerana penyediaan hanya dilakukan dalam tempoh sebulan.<br />
<br />
Pemandu UNISEL V-1 Endurannce, Izwan Merican Ibrahim Merican berkata, pertandingan ini membuka peluang kepada semua pelajar daripada Universiti swasta atau awam, dan ia sebagai pengukur kepada pelajar dan pensyarah bekerjasama, ia sepatutnya diadakan lebih kerap,” katanya.<br />
<br />
“Ini merupakan satu peluang kepada semua pelajar Unisel mempelajari dari pelajar luar, bersaing daripada mereka yang lebih berpengalaman kerana aspek ini penting dalam perlumbaan ni, ia sangat berbaloi kerana rekaan kereta hanya sebulan, namun penat berbayar,” kata Shafiq Idwan Rusli.Bagi Muhammad Syahril Yazmin Dzapri pula, walaupun pertama kali menyertai pertandingan ini, namun mendapat kemenangan yang bergaya dan paling penting dengan sokongan kumpulan serta kondisi kenderaan itu berjaya mengekalkan prestasi enjin,” katanya.<br />
<br />
Di samping itu, Pengurus Pasukan, Profesor Madya Ir Muhidin Arifin berkata, UNISEL V-1 ini hanyalah satu permulaan dan dan satu lagi model V-2 akan dihasilkan untuk pertandingan akan datang.<br />
<br />
“ Kami akan memperbaiki formula V-1, buat satu lagi model V-2, dan buat masa ini kami dah ada model tersebut, V-2 ini adalah sebagai peningkatan daripada V-1,” katanya.-ATIQAH YAACOB (TVSELANGOR)Gabungan Mahasiswa Kejuruteraanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03438000291098117936noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4269717405423804192.post-66408608879239239052009-09-14T05:33:00.000-07:002009-09-14T05:42:36.540-07:00Salam Aidilfitri<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEirjRvmJeBP5NBDKquzjW5cLtIsN91oMr0pUbIYSuEFwSRaCrHMjJmz43cw0AP8ny0JNv4iQxhLAG6sVxtlls5sT_g4photglu_LsRdTqSY5IavkdM-saFXNJquzeIfD_pciLy5Y-cjXOl0/s1600-h/salam-aidilfitri02.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 400px; height: 300px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEirjRvmJeBP5NBDKquzjW5cLtIsN91oMr0pUbIYSuEFwSRaCrHMjJmz43cw0AP8ny0JNv4iQxhLAG6sVxtlls5sT_g4photglu_LsRdTqSY5IavkdM-saFXNJquzeIfD_pciLy5Y-cjXOl0/s400/salam-aidilfitri02.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5381300651789024754" border="0" /></a><br /><div style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size:180%;"><span style="font-weight: bold;">Salam Aidilfitri to all student,lecturer and staff Faculty of Engineering Unisel from GMK ...</span><br /></span><br /></div>Gabungan Mahasiswa Kejuruteraanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03438000291098117936noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4269717405423804192.post-86255471874666902482009-09-14T05:09:00.000-07:002009-10-19T06:07:02.094-07:00Electrical Engineering<a href="http://education-portal.com/cimages/multimages/16/electrical_engineering.jpg" onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" style="color: black;"><img alt="" border="0" src="http://education-portal.com/cimages/multimages/16/electrical_engineering.jpg" style="cursor: pointer; display: block; height: 279px; margin: 0px auto 10px; text-align: center; width: 440px;" /></a><br />
<b style="color: black;"><span style="font-size: 130%;">Thermology</span><br />
</b><br />
<div style="color: black;"><b>Electrical engineering</b>, sometimes referred to as <b>electrical and electronic engineering</b>, is a field of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a> that deals with the study and application of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricity" title="Electricity">electricity</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronics" title="Electronics">electronics</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">electromagnetism</a>. The field first became an identifiable occupation in the late nineteenth century after commercialization of the electric <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telegraph" title="Telegraph">telegraph</a> and electrical power supply. It now covers a range of subtopics including <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_engineering" title="Power engineering">power</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronics" title="Electronics">electronics</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_systems" title="Control systems">control systems</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal_processing" title="Signal processing">signal processing</a> and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications" title="Telecommunications">telecommunications</a>.<br />
</div><div style="color: black;">Electrical engineering may or may not include <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_engineering" title="Electronic engineering">electronic engineering</a>. Where a distinction is made, usually outside of the United States, electrical engineering is considered to deal with the problems associated with large-scale electrical systems such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_power_transmission" title="Electric power transmission">power transmission</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_controller" title="Motor controller">motor control</a>, whereas electronic engineering deals with the study of small-scale electronic systems including <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computers" title="Computers">computers</a> and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuits" title="Integrated circuits">integrated circuits</a>.Alternatively, electrical engineers are usually concerned with using electricity to transmit energy, while electronic engineers are concerned with using electricity to transmit information.<br />
</div><div style="color: black;"><span style="font-size: 130%; font-weight: bold;">History</span><br />
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</div><div style="color: black;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricity" title="Electricity">Electricity</a> has been a subject of scientific interest since at least the early 17th century. The first electrical engineer was probably <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Gilbert" title="William Gilbert">William Gilbert</a> who designed the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Versorium" title="Versorium">versorium</a>: a device that detected the presence of statically charged objects. He was also the first to draw a clear distinction between magnetism and static electricity and is credited with establishing the term electricity.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_engineering#cite_note-1"></a></sup>In 1775 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alessandro_Volta" title="Alessandro Volta">Alessandro Volta</a>'s scientific experimentations devised the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrophorus" title="Electrophorus">electrophorus</a>, a device that produced a static electric charge, and by 1800 Volta developed the voltaic pile, a forerunner of the electric battery.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-2"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_engineering#cite_note-2"></a></sup><br />
</div><div style="color: black;">However, it was not until the 19th century that research into the subject started to intensify. Notable developments in this century include the work of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Ohm" title="Georg Ohm">Georg Ohm</a>, who in 1827 quantified the relationship between the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_current" title="Electric current">electric current</a> and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_difference" title="Potential difference">potential difference</a> in a conductor, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Faraday" title="Michael Faraday">Michael Faraday</a>, the discoverer of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_induction" title="Electromagnetic induction">electromagnetic induction</a> in 1831, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell">James Clerk Maxwell</a>, who in 1873 published a unified <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxwell%27s_equations" title="Maxwell's equations">theory</a> of electricity and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetism" title="Magnetism">magnetism</a> in his treatise <i>Electricity and Magnetism</i>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-3"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_engineering#cite_note-3"></a></sup><br />
<br />
</div><div class="thumb tleft" style="color: black;"></div><div style="color: black;">During these years, the study of electricity was largely considered to be a subfield of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>. It was not until the late 19th century that <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University" title="University">universities</a> started to offer <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_degree" title="Academic degree">degrees</a> in electrical engineering. The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darmstadt_University_of_Technology" title="Darmstadt University of Technology">Darmstadt University of Technology</a> founded the first chair and the first faculty of electrical engineering worldwide in 1882. In the same year, under Professor Charles Cross, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> began offering the first option of Electrical Engineering within a physics department.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-4"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_engineering#cite_note-4"></a></sup>In 1883 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darmstadt_University_of_Technology" title="Darmstadt University of Technology">Darmstadt University of Technology</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornell_University" title="Cornell University">Cornell University</a> introduced the world's first courses of study in electrical engineering, and in 1885 the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_College_London" title="University College London">University College London</a> founded the first chair of electrical engineering in the United Kingdom.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-5"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_engineering#cite_note-5"></a></sup>The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Missouri" title="University of Missouri">University of Missouri</a> subsequently established the first department of electrical engineering in the United States in 1886.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-6"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_engineering#cite_note-6"></a></sup><br />
<br />
</div><div class="thumb tright" style="color: black;"><div class="thumbinner" style="width: 142px;"></div></div><div style="color: black;">During this period, the work concerning electrical engineering increased dramatically. In 1882, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Edison" title="Thomas Edison">Edison</a> switched on the world's first large-scale electrical supply network that provided 110 volts <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_current" title="Direct current">direct current</a> to fifty-nine customers in lower Manhattan. In 1884 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Algernon_Parsons" title="Charles Algernon Parsons">Sir Charles Parsons</a> invented the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_turbine" title="Steam turbine">steam turbine</a> which today generates about 80 percent of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_power" title="Electric power">electric power</a> in the world using a variety of heat sources. In 1887, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikola_Tesla" title="Nikola Tesla">Nikola Tesla</a> filed a number of patents related to a competing form of power distribution known as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternating_current" title="Alternating current">alternating current</a>. In the following years a bitter rivalry between Tesla and Edison, known as the "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_of_Currents" title="War of Currents">War of Currents</a>", took place over the preferred method of distribution. AC eventually replaced DC for generation and power distribution, enormously extending the range and improving the safety and efficiency of power distribution.<br />
</div><div style="color: black;">The efforts of the two did much to further electrical engineering—Tesla's work on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Induction_motor" title="Induction motor">induction motors</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyphase_system" title="Polyphase system">polyphase systems</a> influenced the field for years to come, while Edison's work on telegraphy and his development of the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stock_ticker" title="Stock ticker">stock ticker</a> proved lucrative for his company, which ultimately became <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Electric" title="General Electric">General Electric</a>. However, by the end of the 19th century, other key figures in the progress of electrical engineering were beginning to emerge.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-7"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_engineering#cite_note-7"></a></sup><br />
</div><div style="color: black;"><a href="" id="Modern_developments" name="Modern_developments"></a><br />
</div><h3 style="color: black;"><span style="font-size: 100%;">Modern developments</span></h3><div style="color: black;">During the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invention_of_radio" title="Invention of radio">development of radio</a>, many scientists and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inventor" title="Inventor">inventors</a> contributed to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio" title="Radio">radio technology</a> and electronics. In his classic <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultra_high_frequency" title="Ultra high frequency">UHF</a> experiments of 1888, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Hertz" title="Heinrich Hertz">Heinrich Hertz</a> transmitted (via a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spark-gap_transmitter" title="Spark-gap transmitter">spark-gap transmitter</a>) and detected <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_waves" title="Radio waves">radio waves</a> using electrical equipment. In 1895, Nikola Tesla was able to detect signals from the transmissions of his New York lab at West Point (a distance of 80.4 km / 49.95 miles).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-8"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_engineering#cite_note-8"></a></sup>In 1897, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Ferdinand_Braun" title="Karl Ferdinand Braun">Karl Ferdinand Braun</a> introduced the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathode_ray_tube" title="Cathode ray tube">cathode ray tube</a> as part of an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oscilloscope" title="Oscilloscope">oscilloscope</a>, a crucial enabling technology for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television" title="Television">electronic television</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-9"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_engineering#cite_note-9"></a></sup><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ambrose_Fleming" title="John Ambrose Fleming">John Fleming</a> invented the first radio tube, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diode" title="Diode">diode</a>, in 1904. Two years later, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_von_Lieben" title="Robert von Lieben">Robert von Lieben</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_De_Forest" title="Lee De Forest">Lee De Forest</a> independently developed the amplifier tube, called the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triode" title="Triode">triode</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-10"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_engineering#cite_note-10"></a></sup>In 1895, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guglielmo_Marconi" title="Guglielmo Marconi">Guglielmo Marconi</a> furthered the art of hertzian wireless methods. Early on, he sent wireless signals over a distance of one and a half miles. In December 1901, he sent wireless waves that were not affected by the curvature of the Earth. Marconi later transmitted the wireless signals across the Atlantic between Poldhu, Cornwall, and St. John's, Newfoundland, a distance of 2,100 miles (3,400 km).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-11"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_engineering#cite_note-11"></a></sup>In 1920 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Hull" title="Albert Hull">Albert Hull</a> developed the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cavity_magnetron" title="Cavity magnetron">magnetron</a> which would eventually lead to the development of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microwave_oven" title="Microwave oven">microwave oven</a> in 1946 by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percy_Spencer" title="Percy Spencer">Percy Spencer</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-12"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_engineering#cite_note-12"></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-13"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_engineering#cite_note-13"></a></sup>In 1934 the British military began to make strides toward <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">radar</a> (which also uses the magnetron) under the direction of Dr Wimperis, culminating in the operation of the first radar station at <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bawdsey" title="Bawdsey">Bawdsey</a> in August 1936.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-14"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_engineering#cite_note-14"></a></sup><br />
</div><div style="color: black;">In 1941 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konrad_Zuse" title="Konrad Zuse">Konrad Zuse</a> presented the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z3_%28computer%29" title="Z3 (computer)">Z3</a>, the world's first fully functional and programmable computer.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-15"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_engineering#cite_note-15"></a></sup>In 1946 the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ENIAC" title="ENIAC">ENIAC</a> (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) of <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Presper_Eckert" title="John Presper Eckert">John Presper Eckert</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Mauchly" title="John Mauchly">John Mauchly</a> followed, beginning the computing era. The arithmetic performance of these machines allowed engineers to develop completely new technologies and achieve new objectives, including the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_program" title="Apollo program">Apollo missions</a> and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon_landing" title="Moon landing">NASA moon landing</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-16"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_engineering#cite_note-16"></a></sup><br />
</div><span style="color: black;"> The invention of the transistor in 1947 by </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_B._Shockley" style="color: black;" title="William B. Shockley">William B. Shockley</a><span style="color: black;">, </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Bardeen" style="color: black;" title="John Bardeen">John Bardeen</a><span style="color: black;"> and </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Brattain" style="color: black;" title="Walter Brattain">Walter Brattain</a> opened the door for more compact devices and led to the development of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuit" style="color: black;" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuit</a><span style="color: black;"> in 1958 by </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Kilby" style="color: black;" title="Jack Kilby">Jack Kilby</a><span style="color: black;"> and independently in 1959 by </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Noyce" style="color: black;" title="Robert Noyce">Robert Noyce</a><span style="color: black;">.Starting in 1968, </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcian_Hoff" style="color: black;" title="Marcian Hoff">Ted Hoff</a><span style="color: black;"> and a team at </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel" style="color: black;" title="Intel">Intel</a><span style="color: black;"> invented the first commercial </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor" style="color: black;" title="Microprocessor">microprocessor</a><span style="color: black;">, which presaged the </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_computer" style="color: black;" title="Personal computer">personal computer</a><span style="color: black;">. The </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_4004" style="color: black;" title="Intel 4004">Intel 4004</a><span style="color: black;"> was a 4-bit processor released in 1971, but in 1973 the </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_8080" style="color: black;" title="Intel 8080">Intel 8080</a><span style="color: black;">, an 8-bit processor, made the first personal computer, the </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altair_8800" style="color: black;" title="Altair 8800">Altair 8800</a><span style="color: black;">, possible.</span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-size: 130%; font-weight: bold;"><br />
Subdiciplene</span><br />
<div style="color: black;">Electrical engineering has many sub-disciplines, the most popular of which are listed below. Although there are electrical engineers who focus exclusively on one of these sub-disciplines, many deal with a combination of them. Sometimes certain fields, such as electronic engineering and computer engineering, are considered separate disciplines in their own right.<br />
</div><div style="color: black;"><a href="" id="Power" name="Power"></a><br />
</div><h3 style="color: black;"><span style="font-size: 100%;">Power</span></h3><div class="thumb tright" style="color: black;"></div><div style="color: black;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_engineering" title="Power engineering">Power engineering</a> deals with the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricity_generation" title="Electricity generation">generation</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_power_transmission" title="Electric power transmission">transmission</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricity_distribution" title="Electricity distribution">distribution</a> of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricity" title="Electricity">electricity</a> as well as the design of a range of related devices. These include <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformer" title="Transformer">transformers</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_generator" title="Electric generator">electric generators</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_motor" title="Electric motor">electric motors</a>, high voltage engineering and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_electronics" title="Power electronics">power electronics</a>. In many regions of the world, governments maintain an electrical network called a <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_grid" title="Power grid">power grid</a> that connects a variety of generators together with users of their energy. Users purchase electrical energy from the grid, avoiding the costly exercise of having to generate their own. Power engineers may work on the design and maintenance of the power grid as well as the power systems that connect to it. Such systems are called <i>on-grid</i> power systems and may supply the grid with additional power, draw power from the grid or do both. Power engineers may also work on systems that do not connect to the grid, called <i>off-grid</i> power systems, which in some cases are preferable to on-grid systems. The future includes Satellite controlled power systems, with feedback in real time to prevent power surges and prevent blackouts.<br />
</div><div style="color: black;"><a href="" id="Control" name="Control"></a><br />
</div><h3 style="color: black;"><span style="font-size: 100%;">Control</span></h3><div style="color: black;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_engineering" title="Control engineering">Control engineering</a> focuses on the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_model" title="Mathematical model">modeling</a> of a diverse range of <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_system" title="Dynamic system">dynamic systems</a> and the design of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Controller_%28control_theory%29" title="Controller (control theory)">controllers</a> that will cause these systems to behave in the desired manner. To implement such controllers electrical engineers may use <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_circuit" title="Electronic circuit">electrical circuits</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_signal_processing" title="Digital signal processing">digital signal processors</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcontroller" title="Microcontroller">microcontrollers</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmable_logic_controller" title="Programmable logic controller">PLCs</a> (Programmable Logic Controllers). <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_engineering" title="Control engineering">Control engineering</a> has a wide range of applications from the flight and propulsion systems of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airliner" title="Airliner">commercial airliners</a> to the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cruise_control" title="Cruise control">cruise control</a> present in many modern <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automobile" title="Automobile">automobiles</a>. It also plays an important role in <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_automation" title="Industrial automation">industrial automation</a>.<br />
</div><div style="color: black;">Control engineers often utilize <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feedback" title="Feedback">feedback</a> when designing <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_system" title="Control system">control systems</a>. For example, in an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automobile" title="Automobile">automobile</a> with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cruise_control" title="Cruise control">cruise control</a> the vehicle's <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speed" title="Speed">speed</a> is continuously monitored and fed back to the system which adjusts the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine" title="Internal combustion engine">motor's</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_%28physics%29" title="Power (physics)">power</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Output" title="Output">output</a> accordingly. Where there is regular feedback, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_theory" title="Control theory">control theory</a> can be used to determine how the system responds to such feedback.<br />
</div><div style="color: black;"><a href="" id="Electronics" name="Electronics"></a><br />
</div><h3 style="color: black;"><span style="font-size: 100%;">Electronics</span></h3><div class="thumb tright" style="color: black;"></div><div style="color: black;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_engineering" title="Electronic engineering">Electronic engineering</a> involves the design and testing of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_circuit" title="Electronic circuit">electronic circuits</a> that use the properties of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_element" title="Electrical element">components</a> such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resistor" title="Resistor">resistors</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitor" title="Capacitor">capacitors</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductor" title="Inductor">inductors</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diode" title="Diode">diodes</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistors</a> to achieve a particular functionality. The <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuned_circuit" title="Tuned circuit">tuned circuit</a>, which allows the user of a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio" title="Radio">radio</a> to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_filter" title="Electronic filter">filter</a> out all but a single station, is just one example of such a circuit. Another example (of a pneumatic signal conditioner) is shown in the adjacent photograph.<br />
</div><div style="color: black;">Prior to the second world war, the subject was commonly known as <i>radio engineering</i> and basically was restricted to aspects of communications and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">radar</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio" title="Radio">commercial radio</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television" title="Television">early television</a>. Later, in post war years, as consumer devices began to be developed, the field grew to include modern television, audio systems, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer" title="Computer">computers</a> and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessors" title="Microprocessors">microprocessors</a>. In the mid to late 1950s, the term <i>radio engineering</i> gradually gave way to the name <i>electronic engineering</i>.<br />
</div><div style="color: black;">Before the invention of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuit</a> in 1959, electronic circuits were constructed from discrete components that could be manipulated by humans. These discrete circuits consumed much space and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_power" title="Electric power">power</a> and were limited in speed, although they are still common in some applications. By contrast, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuits</a> packed a large number—often millions—of tiny electrical components, mainly <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistors</a>, into a small chip around the size of a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coin" title="Coin">coin</a>. This allowed for the powerful <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer" title="Computer">computers</a> and other electronic devices we see today.<br />
</div><div style="color: black;"><a href="" id="Microelectronics" name="Microelectronics"></a><br />
</div><h3 style="color: black;"><span style="font-size: 100%;">Microelectronics</span></h3><div style="color: black;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microelectronics" title="Microelectronics">Microelectronics</a> engineering deals with the design and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microfabrication" title="Microfabrication">microfabrication</a> of very small electronic circuit components for use in an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuit</a> or sometimes for use on their own as a general electronic component. The most common microelectronic components are <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">semiconductor</a> <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistors" title="Transistors">transistors</a>, although all main electronic components (<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resistors" title="Resistors">resistors</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitors" title="Capacitors">capacitors</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductors" title="Inductors">inductors</a>) can be created at a microscopic level.<br />
</div><div style="color: black;">Microelectronic components are created by chemically fabricating wafers of semiconductors such as silicon (at higher frequencies, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compound_semiconductor" title="Compound semiconductor">compound semiconductors</a> like gallium arsenide and indium phosphide) to obtain the desired transport of electronic charge and control of current. The field of microelectronics involves a significant amount of chemistry and material science and requires the electronic engineer working in the field to have a very good working knowledge of the effects of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a>.<br />
</div><div style="color: black;"><a href="" id="Signal_processing" name="Signal_processing"></a><br />
</div><h3 style="color: black;"><span style="font-size: 100%;">Signal processing</span></h3><div class="thumb tright" style="color: black;"></div><div style="color: black;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal_processing" title="Signal processing">Signal processing</a> deals with the analysis and manipulation of <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal_%28information_theory%29" title="Signal (information theory)">signals</a>. Signals can be either <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog_signal" title="Analog signal">analog</a>, in which case the signal varies continuously according to the information, or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_signal" title="Digital signal">digital</a>, in which case the signal varies according to a series of discrete values representing the information. For analog signals, signal processing may involve the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplifier" title="Amplifier">amplification</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filter_%28signal_processing%29" title="Filter (signal processing)">filtering</a> of audio signals for audio equipment or the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modulation" title="Modulation">modulation</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demodulation" title="Demodulation">demodulation</a> of signals for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunication" title="Telecommunication">telecommunications</a>. For digital signals, signal processing may involve the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_compression" title="Data compression">compression</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_detection" title="Error detection">error detection</a> and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_correction" title="Error correction">error correction</a> of digitally sampled signals.<br />
</div><div style="color: black;">Signal Processing is a very mathematically oriented and intensive area forming the core of <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Signal_Processing" title="Digital Signal Processing">Digital Signal Processing</a> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DSP" title="DSP">DSP</a>) and it is rapidly expanding with new applications in every field of electrical engineering such as communications, control, radar, TV/Audio/Video engineering, power electronics and bio-medical engineering as many already existing analog systems are replaced with their digital counterparts.<br />
</div><div style="color: black;">Although in the classical era, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog_signal_processing" title="Analog signal processing">analog signal processing</a> only provided a mathematical description of a system to be designed, which is actually implemented by the <a class="new" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Analog_hardware&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Analog hardware (page does not exist)">analog hardware</a> engineers, Digital Signal Processing both provides a mathematical description of the systems to be designed and also actually implements them (either by software programming or by hardware embedding) without much dependency on hardware issues, which exponentiates the importance and success of DSP engineering.<br />
</div><div style="color: black;">The deep and strong relations between signals and the information they carry makes signal processing equivalent of information processing. Which is the reason why the field finds so many diversified applications. DSP processor ICs are found in every type of modern electronic systems and products including, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SDTV" title="SDTV">SDTV</a> | <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HDTV" title="HDTV">HDTV</a> sets, radios and mobile communication devices, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hi-Fi" title="Hi-Fi">Hi-Fi</a> audio equipments, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolby" title="Dolby">Dolby</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noise_reduction" title="Noise reduction">noise reduction</a> algorithms, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GSM" title="GSM">GSM</a> mobile phones, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mp3" title="Mp3">mp3</a> multimedia players, camcorders and digital cameras, automobile control systems, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noise_cancelling" title="Noise cancelling">noise cancelling</a> headphones, digital <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectrum_analyzer" title="Spectrum analyzer">spectrum analyzers</a>, intelligent missile guidance, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">radar</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPS" title="GPS">GPS</a> based cruise control systems and all kinds of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_processing" title="Image processing">image processing</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_processing" title="Video processing">video processing</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio_processing" title="Audio processing">audio processing</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_processing" title="Speech processing">speech processing</a> systems.<br />
</div><div style="color: black;"><a href="" id="Telecommunications" name="Telecommunications"></a><br />
</div><h3 style="color: black;"><span style="font-size: 100%;">Telecommunications</span></h3><div style="color: black;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications" title="Telecommunications">Telecommunications engineering</a> focuses on the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_%28telecommunications%29" title="Transmission (telecommunications)">transmission</a> of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information" title="Information">information</a> across a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Channel_%28communications%29" title="Channel (communications)">channel</a> such as a <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coax_cable" title="Coax cable">coax cable</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_fiber" title="Optical fiber">optical fiber</a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_space" title="Free space">free space</a>. Transmissions across free space require information to be encoded in a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrier_wave" title="Carrier wave">carrier wave</a> in order to shift the information to a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrier_frequency" title="Carrier frequency">carrier frequency</a> suitable for transmission, this is known as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modulation" title="Modulation">modulation</a>. Popular analog modulation techniques include <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplitude_modulation" title="Amplitude modulation">amplitude modulation</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency_modulation" title="Frequency modulation">frequency modulation</a>. The choice of modulation affects the cost and performance of a system and these two factors must be balanced carefully by the engineer.<br />
</div><div style="color: black;">Once the transmission characteristics of a system are determined, telecommunication engineers design the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmitter" title="Transmitter">transmitters</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Receiver_%28radio%29" title="Receiver (radio)">receivers</a> needed for such systems. These two are sometimes combined to form a two-way communication device known as a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transceiver" title="Transceiver">transceiver</a>. A key consideration in the design of transmitters is their <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_consumption" title="Power consumption">power consumption</a> as this is closely related to their <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal_strength" title="Signal strength">signal strength</a>. If the signal strength of a transmitter is insufficient the signal's information will be corrupted by <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal_noise" title="Signal noise">noise</a>.<br />
</div><div style="color: black;"><a href="" id="Instrumentation" name="Instrumentation"></a><br />
</div><h3 style="color: black;"><span style="font-size: 100%;">Instrumentation</span></h3><div class="thumb tright" style="color: black;"></div><div style="color: black;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumentation_engineering" title="Instrumentation engineering">Instrumentation engineering</a> deals with the design of devices to measure physical quantities such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressure" title="Pressure">pressure</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flow" title="Flow">flow</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">temperature</a>. The design of such instrumentation requires a good understanding of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a> that often extends beyond <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">electromagnetic theory</a>. For example, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radar_gun" title="Radar gun">radar guns</a> use the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doppler_effect" title="Doppler effect">Doppler effect</a> to measure the speed of oncoming vehicles. Similarly, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermocouple" title="Thermocouple">thermocouples</a> use the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peltier-Seebeck_effect" title="Peltier-Seebeck effect">Peltier-Seebeck effect</a> to measure the temperature difference between two points.<br />
</div><div style="color: black;">Often instrumentation is not used by itself, but instead as the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensor" title="Sensor">sensors</a> of larger electrical systems. For example, a thermocouple might be used to help ensure a furnace's temperature remains constant. For this reason, instrumentation engineering is often viewed as the counterpart of control engineering.<br />
</div><div style="color: black;"><a href="" id="Computers" name="Computers"></a><br />
</div><h3 style="color: black;"><span style="font-size: 100%;">Computers</span></h3><div style="color: black;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_engineering" title="Computer engineering">Computer engineering</a> deals with the design of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer" title="Computer">computers</a> and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_system" title="Computer system">computer systems</a>. This may involve the design of new <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardware" title="Hardware">hardware</a>, the design of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_digital_assistant" title="Personal digital assistant">PDAs</a> or the use of computers to control an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manufacturing" title="Manufacturing">industrial plant</a>. Computer engineers may also work on a system's <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software" title="Software">software</a>. However, the design of complex software systems is often the domain of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_engineering" title="Software engineering">software engineering</a>, which is usually considered a separate discipline. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desktop_computer" title="Desktop computer">Desktop computers</a> represent a tiny fraction of the devices a computer engineer might work on, as computer-like architectures are now found in a range of devices including <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game_console" title="Video game console">video game consoles</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DVD_player" title="DVD player">DVD players</a>.<br />
</div><div style="color: black;"><a href="" id="Related_disciplines" name="Related_disciplines"></a><br />
</div><div style="color: black;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechatronics" title="Mechatronics">Mechatronics</a> is an engineering discipline which deals with the convergence of electrical and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine" title="Machine">mechanical</a> systems. Such combined systems are known as <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromechanical" title="Electromechanical">electromechanical</a> systems and have widespread adoption. Examples include <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automation" title="Automation">automated manufacturing systems</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HVAC" title="HVAC">heating, ventilation and air-conditioning systems</a> and various subsystems of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft" title="Aircraft">aircraft</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automobile" title="Automobile">automobiles</a>.<br />
</div><div style="color: black;">The term <i>mechatronics</i> is typically used to refer to <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macroscopic" title="Macroscopic">macroscopic</a> systems but <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Futures_studies" title="Futures studies">futurists</a> have predicted the emergence of very small electromechanical devices. Already such small devices, known as <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MEMS" title="MEMS">micro electromechanical systems</a> (MEMS), are used in automobiles to tell <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airbag" title="Airbag">airbags</a> when to deploy, in <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_projector" title="Digital projector">digital projectors</a> to create sharper images and in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inkjet_printer" title="Inkjet printer">inkjet printers</a> to create nozzles for high definition printing. In the future it is hoped the devices will help build tiny implantable medical devices and improve <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_communication" title="Optical communication">optical communication</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-31"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_engineering#cite_note-31"></a></sup><br />
</div><div style="color: black;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomedical_engineering" title="Biomedical engineering">Biomedical engineering</a> is another related discipline, concerned with the design of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_equipment" title="Medical equipment">medical equipment</a>. This includes fixed equipment such as <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ventilator" title="Ventilator">ventilators</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MRI" title="MRI">MRI scanners</a> and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrocardiograph" title="Electrocardiograph">electrocardiograph monitors</a> as well as mobile equipment such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cochlear_implant" title="Cochlear implant">cochlear implants</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_pacemaker" title="Artificial pacemaker">artificial pacemakers</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_heart" title="Artificial heart">artificial hearts</a>.<br />
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</div><div style="color: black;">souce : wikipedia <br />
</div>Gabungan Mahasiswa Kejuruteraanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03438000291098117936noreply@blogger.com15tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4269717405423804192.post-52281280324086914632009-09-09T21:30:00.000-07:002009-10-19T06:07:48.553-07:00Civil Engineering<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhKaV8sQr9TiNCFJaufL762jkcOR3qA2PoMPO3J8kkFDi4T6P0Wri3mYOjLtBFyWTiMJi_1OJKVGVhMnOF0vk10uxQw5JP1gaplJvqrdEoItw4G2-vZP0a6sIvl980i6jFIFkDg1KJ6_z8n/s1600-h/Torres_Petronas_Mayo_2004.jpg"><b><i><img alt="" border="0" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5379694083605314754" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhKaV8sQr9TiNCFJaufL762jkcOR3qA2PoMPO3J8kkFDi4T6P0Wri3mYOjLtBFyWTiMJi_1OJKVGVhMnOF0vk10uxQw5JP1gaplJvqrdEoItw4G2-vZP0a6sIvl980i6jFIFkDg1KJ6_z8n/s320/Torres_Petronas_Mayo_2004.jpg" style="display: block; height: 320px; margin: 0px auto 10px; text-align: center; width: 214px;" /></i></b></a><b><i><br />
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<div><span style="font-size: 130%;"><i><b>Termology</b></i></span><br />
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<div><span style="font-size: 130%;"><i><b></b></i></span><br />
</div><div>Civil engineering is a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Professional_Engineer" title="Professional Engineer">professional engineering</a> discipline that deals with the design, construction and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment, including works such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridge" title="Bridge">bridges</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Road" title="Road">roads</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canal" title="Canal">canals</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam" title="Dam">dams</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Building" title="Building">buildings</a>.Civil engineering is the oldest <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a> discipline after <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_engineering" title="Military engineering">military engineering</a>,and it was defined to distinguish non-military engineering from military engineering.It is traditionally broken into several sub-disciplines including <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_engineering" title="Environmental engineering">environmental engineering</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geotechnical_engineering" title="Geotechnical engineering">geotechnical engineering</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_engineering" title="Structural engineering">structural engineering</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transportation_engineering" title="Transportation engineering">transportation engineering</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_engineering" title="Urban engineering">municipal or urban engineering</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydraulic_engineering" title="Hydraulic engineering">water resources engineering</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materials_science" title="Materials science">materials engineering</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coastal_management" title="Coastal management">coastal engineering</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surveying" title="Surveying">surveying</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construction_engineering" title="Construction engineering">construction engineering</a>.Civil engineering takes place on all levels: in the public sector from municipal through to federal levels, and in the private sector from individual homeowners through to international companies.<br />
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<div><span style="font-size: 130%;"><i><b>History of Civil Engineering</b></i></span><br />
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<div><span style="font-size: 130%;"><i><b></b></i></span><br />
</div><div><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">Engineering</a> has been an aspect of life since the beginnings of human existence. Civil engineering might be considered properly commencing between 4000 and 2000 BC in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> when humans started to abandon a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nomad" title="Nomad">nomadic</a> existence, thus causing a need for the construction of shelter. During this time, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport" title="Transport">transportation</a> became increasingly important leading to the development of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheel" title="Wheel">wheel</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maritime_history" title="Maritime history">sailing</a>. The construction of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_pyramids" title="Egyptian pyramids">Pyramids</a> in Egypt (circa 2700-2500 BC) might be considered the first instances of large structure constructions. Other ancient historic civil engineering constructions include the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parthenon" title="Parthenon">Parthenon</a> by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iktinos" title="Iktinos">Iktinos</a> in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greece</a> (447-438 BC), the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appian_Way" title="Appian Way">Appian Way</a> by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_engineering" title="Roman engineering">Roman engineers</a> (c. 312 BC), and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Wall_of_China" title="Great Wall of China">Great Wall of China</a> by General <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meng_Tian" title="Meng Tian">Meng T'ien</a> under orders from Ch'in Emperor <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qin_Shi_Huang" title="Qin Shi Huang">Shih Huang Ti</a> (c. 220 BC).The Romans developed civil structures throughout their empire, including especially <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aqueducts" title="Aqueducts">aqueducts</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insulae" title="Insulae">insulae</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harbours" title="Harbours">harbours</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridge" title="Bridge">bridges</a>, dams and roads.<br />
Until modern times there was no clear distinction between civil engineering and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">architecture</a>, and the term engineer and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architect" title="Architect">architect</a> were mainly geographical variations referring to the same person, often used interchangeably.In the 18th century, the term civil engineering began to be used to distinguish it from military engineering.<br />
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The first self-proclaimed civil engineer was <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Smeaton" title="John Smeaton">John Smeaton</a> who constructed the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddystone_Lighthouse" title="Eddystone Lighthouse">Eddystone Lighthouse</a>.In 1771 Smeaton and some of his colleagues formed the Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers, a group of leaders of the profession who met informally over dinner. Though there was evidence of some technical meetings, it was little more than a social society. <br />
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In 1818 the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institution_of_Civil_Engineers" title="Institution of Civil Engineers">Institution of Civil Engineers</a> was founded in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>, and in 1820 the eminent engineer <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Telford" title="Thomas Telford">Thomas Telford</a> became its first president. The institution received a Royal Charter in 1828, formally recognising civil engineering as a profession. Its charter defined civil engineering as the art of directing the great sources of power in nature for the use and convenience of man, as the means of production and of traffic in states, both for external and internal trade, as applied in the construction of roads, bridges, aqueducts, canals, river navigation and docks for internal intercourse and exchange, and in the construction of ports, harbours, moles, breakwaters and lighthouses, and in the art of navigation by artificial power for the purposes of commerce, and in the construction and application of machinery, and in the drainage of cities and towns.<br />
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The first private college to teach Civil Engineering in the United States was <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwich_University" title="Norwich University">Norwich University</a> founded in 1819 by Captain Alden Partridge.The first degree in Civil Engineering in the United States was awarded by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rensselaer_Polytechnic_Institute" title="Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute">Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute</a> in 1835.The first such degree to be awarded to a woman was granted by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornell_University" title="Cornell University">Cornell University</a> to <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nora_Stanton_Blatch" title="Nora Stanton Blatch">Nora Stanton Blatch</a> in 1905.<br />
</div><div>Civil engineering is the application of physical and scientific principles, and its history is intricately linked to advances in understanding of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a> throughout history. Because civil engineering is a wide ranging profession, including several separate specialized sub-disciplines, its history is linked to knowledge of <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structures" title="Structures">structures</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materials_science" title="Materials science">materials science</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">geography</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">geology</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soils</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrology" title="Hydrology">hydrology</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_science" title="Environmental science">environment</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanics" title="Mechanics">mechanics</a> and other fields. <br />
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Throughout ancient and medieval history most architectural design and construction was carried out by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artisan" title="Artisan">artisans</a>, such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masonry" title="Masonry">stone masons</a> and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carpenter" title="Carpenter">carpenters</a>, rising to the role of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_Builder" title="Master Builder">master builder</a>. Knowledge was retained in <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guilds" title="Guilds">guilds</a> and seldom supplanted by advances. Structures, roads and infrastructure that existed were repetitive, and increases in scale were incremental.<br />
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One of the earliest examples of a scientific approach to physical and mathematical problems applicable to civil engineering is the work of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archimedes" title="Archimedes">Archimedes</a> in the 3rd century BC, including Archimedes Principle, which underpins our understanding of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buoyancy" title="Buoyancy">buoyancy</a>, and practical solutions such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archimedes%27_screw" title="Archimedes' screw">Archimedes' screw</a>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahmagupta" title="Brahmagupta">Brahmagupta</a>, an Indian mathematician, used arithmetic in the 7th century AD, based on Hindu-Arabic numerals, for excavation (volume) computations.<br />
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<div><span style="font-size: 130%;"><i><b>Subfield</b></i></span><br />
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<div><span style="font-size: 130%;"><b><i></i></b></span><br />
</div><div>In<b><i> </i></b>general, civil engineering is concerned with the overall interface of human created fixed projects with the greater world. General civil engineers work closely with surveyors and specialized civil engineers to fit and serve fixed projects within their given site, community and terrain by designing grading, drainage, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pavement_%28material%29" title="Pavement (material)">pavement</a>, water supply, sewer service, electric and communications supply, and land divisions. General engineers spend much of their time visiting project sites, developing community consensus, and preparing construction plans. General civil engineering is also referred to as <a class="new" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Site_engineering&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Site engineering (page does not exist)">site engineering</a>, a branch of civil engineering that primarily focuses on converting a tract of land from one usage to another. Civil engineers typically apply the principles of geotechnical engineering, structural engineering, environmental engineering, transportation engineering and construction engineering to residential, commercial, industrial and public works projects of all sizes and levels of construction.<br />
<a href="" id="Coastal_engineering" name="Coastal_engineering"></a><br />
<i><b>Coastal engineering<br />
</b></i><br />
Coastal engineering is concerned with managing coastal areas. In some jurisdictions the terms sea defense and coastal protection are used to mean, respectively, defence against flooding and erosion. The term coastal defence is the more traditional term, but coastal management has become more popular as the field has expanded to include techniques that allow erosion to claim land.<br />
<a href="" id="Construction_engineering" name="Construction_engineering"></a><br />
<i><b>Construction engineering</b></i><br />
</div><br />
<div>Construction engineering involves planning and execution of the designs from transportation, site development, hydraulic, environmental, structural and geotechnical engineers. As construction firms tend to have higher business risk than other types of civil engineering firms, many construction engineers tend to take on a role that is more business-like in nature: drafting and reviewing <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contract" title="Contract">contracts</a>, evaluating <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logistics" title="Logistics">logistical operations</a>, and closely-monitoring prices of necessary supplies.<br />
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<div><i><b></b></i><br />
</div><br />
<div><b><i>Earthquake engineering<br />
<br />
</i></b>Earthquake engineering covers ability of various structures to withstand hazardous <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake" title="Earthquake">earthquake</a> exposures at the sites of their particular location.<br />
<a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Chichen_Itza_3.jpg" title="Earthquake-proof and massive pyramid El Castillo, Chichen Itza"></a><br />
<a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Chichen_Itza_3.jpg" title="Enlarge"></a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake_engineering" title="Earthquake engineering">Earthquake engineering</a> is a sub discipline of the broader category of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_engineering" title="Structural engineering">Structural engineering</a>. The main objectives of earthquake engineering are:<br />
<a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Snapshot_of_base_isolation_effect.jpg" title="Snapshot from shake-table video [2] of testing base-isolated (right) and regular (left) building model"></a><br />
<a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Snapshot_of_base_isolation_effect.jpg" title="Enlarge"></a>Understand interaction of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structure" title="Structure">structures</a> with the shaky ground.<br />
Foresee the consequences of possible <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake" title="Earthquake">earthquakes</a>.<br />
Design, construct and maintain <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structure" title="Structure">structures</a> to <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seismic_performance" title="Seismic performance">perform</a> at <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake" title="Earthquake">earthquake</a> exposure up to the expectations and in compliance with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Building_code" title="Building code">building codes</a>.<br />
Earthquake engineering structure does not necessarily mean extremely strong or expensive, Now, the most powerful and budgetary tool in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake_engineering" title="Earthquake engineering">earthquake engineering</a> is <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_isolation" title="Base isolation">base isolation</a> which pertains to the passive structural <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vibration_control" title="Vibration control">vibration control</a> technologies.<br />
<a href="" id="Environmental_engineering" name="Environmental_engineering"></a><br />
<b><i>Environmental engineering<br />
<br />
</i></b><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Trickling_filter_bed_2_w.JPG" title="Enlarge"></a>Environmental engineering deals with the treatment of chemical, biological, and/or thermal waste, the purification of water and air, and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_remediation" title="Environmental remediation">remediation</a> of contaminated sites, due to prior waste disposal or accidental contamination. Among the topics covered by environmental engineering are pollutant transport, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_purification" title="Water purification">water purification</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waste_water_treatment" title="Waste water treatment">waste water treatment</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">air pollution</a>, <a class="new" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solid_waste_treatment&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Solid waste treatment (page does not exist)">solid waste treatment</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hazardous_waste" title="Hazardous waste">hazardous waste</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waste_management" title="Waste management">management</a>. Environmental engineers can be involved with pollution reduction, green engineering, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_ecology" title="Industrial ecology">industrial ecology</a>. Environmental engineering also deals with the gathering of information on the environmental consequences of proposed actions and the assessment of effects of proposed actions for the purpose of assisting society and policy makers in the decision making process. <br />
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Environmental engineering is the contemporary term for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanitary_engineering" title="Sanitary engineering">sanitary engineering</a>, though sanitary engineering traditionally had not included much of the hazardous waste management and environmental remediation work covered by the term environmental engineering. Some other terms in use are public health engineering and environmental health engineering.<br />
<a href="" id="Geotechnical_engineering" name="Geotechnical_engineering"></a><br />
Geotechnical engineering<br />
</div><div>Geotechnical engineering is an area of civil engineering concerned with the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_%28geology%29" title="Rock (geology)">rock</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soil</a> that civil engineering systems are supported by. Knowledge from the fields of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">geology</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Material_science" title="Material science">material science</a> and testing, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanics" title="Mechanics">mechanics</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydraulics" title="Hydraulics">hydraulics</a> are applied by geotechnical engineers to safely and economically design <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foundation_%28engineering%29" title="Foundation (engineering)">foundations</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retaining_wall" title="Retaining wall">retaining walls</a>, and similar structures. Environmental concerns in relation to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landfill" title="Landfill">waste disposal</a> have spawned a new area of study called geoenvironmental engineering where <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a> are important.<br />
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Some of the unique difficulties of geotechnical engineering are the result of the variability and properties of soil. <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boundary_condition" title="Boundary condition">Boundary conditions</a> are often well defined in other branches of civil engineering, but with soil, clearly defining these conditions can be impossible. The material properties and behavior of soil are also difficult to predict due to the variability of soil and limited <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geotechnical_investigation" title="Geotechnical investigation">investigation</a>. This contrasts with the relatively well defined material properties of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">steel</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concrete" title="Concrete">concrete</a> used in other areas of civil engineering. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_mechanics" title="Soil mechanics">Soil mechanics</a>, which define the behavior of soil, is complex due to <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_%28physics%29" title="Stress (physics)">stress</a>-dependent material properties such as volume change, stress–strain relationship, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shear_strength_%28soil%29" title="Shear strength (soil)">strength</a>.<br />
<a href="" id="Water_resources_engineering" name="Water_resources_engineering"></a><br />
<b><i>Water resources engineering</i></b><br />
</div><div><b><i><br />
</i></b>Water resources engineering is concerned with the collection and management of water (as a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_resource" title="Natural resource">natural resource</a>). As a discipline it therefore combines <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrology" title="Hydrology">hydrology</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_science" title="Environmental science">environmental science</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteorology" title="Meteorology">meteorology</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">geology</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_conservation" title="Water conservation">conservation</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resource_management" title="Resource management">resource management</a>. This area of civil engineering relates to the prediction and management of both the quality and the quantity of water in both underground (<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquifers" title="Aquifers">aquifers</a>) and above ground (lakes, rivers, and streams) resources. Water resource engineers analyze and model very small to very large areas of the earth to predict the amount and content of water as it flows into, through, or out of a facility. Although the actual design of the facility may be left to other engineers. Hydraulic engineering is concerned with the flow and conveyance of fluids, principally water. This area of civil engineering is intimately related to the design of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pipeline_transport" title="Pipeline transport">pipelines</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_supply_network" title="Water supply network">water distribution systems</a>, drainage facilities (including bridges, dams, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Channel_%28geography%29" title="Channel (geography)">channels</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culvert" title="Culvert">culverts</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levee" title="Levee">levees</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storm_sewer" title="Storm sewer">storm sewers</a>), and canals. Hydraulic engineers design these facilities using the concepts of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluid_pressure" title="Fluid pressure">fluid pressure</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluid_statics" title="Fluid statics">fluid statics</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluid_dynamics" title="Fluid dynamics">fluid dynamics</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydraulics" title="Hydraulics">hydraulics</a>, among others.<br />
<a href="" id="Materials_engineering" name="Materials_engineering"></a><br />
<i><b>Materials engineering</b></i><br />
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<div>Another aspect of Civil engineering is materials science. Material engineering deals with ceramics such as concrete, mix asphalt concrete, metals Focus around increased strength, metals such as aluminum and steel, and polymers such as <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymethylmethacrylate" title="Polymethylmethacrylate">polymethylmethacrylate</a> (PMMA) and carbon fibers.<br />
<a href="" id="Structural_engineering" name="Structural_engineering"></a><br />
<b><i>Structural engineering </i></b><br />
</div><div><br />
Structural engineering is concerned with the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_design" title="Structural design">structural design</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_analysis" title="Structural analysis">structural analysis</a> of buildings, bridges, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tower" title="Tower">towers</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flyover" title="Flyover">flyovers</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunnel" title="Tunnel">tunnels</a>, off shore structures like oil and gas fields in the sea, and other <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structure" title="Structure">structures</a>. This involves identifying the loads which act upon a structure and the forces and stresses which arise within that structure due to those loads, and then designing the structure to successfully support and resist those loads. The loads can be self weight of the structures, other dead load, live loads, moving (wheel) load, wind load, earthquake load, load from temperature change etc. The structural engineer must design structures to be safe for their users and to successfully fulfill the function they are designed for (to be serviceable). Due to the nature of some loading conditions, sub-disciplines within structural engineering have emerged, including <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_engineering" title="Wind engineering">wind engineering</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake_engineering" title="Earthquake engineering">earthquake engineering</a>. <br />
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Design considerations will include strength, stiffness, and stability of the structure when subjected to loads which may be static, such as furniture or self-weight, or dynamic, such as wind, seismic, crowd or vehicle loads, or transitory, such as temporary construction loads or impact. Other considerations include cost, constructability, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safety" title="Safety">safety</a>, aesthetics and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">sustainability</a>.<br />
<a href="" id="Surveying" name="Surveying"></a><br />
<b><i>Surveying<br />
<br />
</i></b>Surveying is the process by which a surveyor measures certain dimensions that generally occur on the surface of the Earth. Surveying equipment, such as levels and theodolites, are used for accurate measurement of angular deviation, horizontal, vertical and slope distances. With computerisation, electronic distance measurement (EDM), total stations, GPS surveying and laser scanning have supplemented (and to a large extent supplanted) the traditional optical instruments. This information is crucial to convert the data into a graphical representation of the Earth's surface, in the form of a map. This information is then used by civil engineers, contractors and even realtors to design from, build on, and trade, respectively. Elements of a building or structure must be correctly sized and positioned in relation to each other and to site boundaries and adjacent structures. Although surveying is a distinct profession with separate qualifications and licensing arrangements, civil engineers are trained in the basics of surveying and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mapping" title="Mapping">mapping</a>, as well as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic_information_system" title="Geographic information system">geographic information systems</a>. Surveyors may also lay out the routes of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rail_tracks" title="Rail tracks">railways</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tramway_track" title="Tramway track">tramway tracks</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Highway" title="Highway">highways</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Road" title="Road">roads</a>, pipelines and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Street" title="Street">streets</a> as well as position other <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure" title="Infrastructure">infrastructures</a>, such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harbor" title="Harbor">harbors</a>, before construction.<br />
</div><br />
<div><i><b>Land Surveying</b></i><br />
</div><div><br />
In the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom and most Commonwealth countries land surveying is considered to be a distinct profession. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surveying#land_surveyor" title="Surveying">Land surveyors</a> are not considered to be engineers, and have their own professional associations and licencing requirements. The services of a licenced land surveyor are generally required for boundary surveys (to establish the boundaries of a parcel using its legal description) and subdivision plans (a plot or map based on a survey of a parcel of land, with boundary lines drawn inside the larger parcel to indicated the creation of new boundary lines and roads).<br />
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<div><i><b>Construction Surveying<br />
</b></i><br />
</div><br />
<div>Construction surveying is generally performed by specialised technicians. Unlike land surveyors, the resulting plan does not have legal status. Construction surveyors perform the following tasks:<br />
Survey existing conditions of the future work site, including topography, existing buildings and infrastructure, and even including underground infrastructure whenever possible;<br />
Construction surveying (otherwise "lay-out" or "setting-out"): to stake out reference points and markers that will guide the construction of new structures such as roads or buildings for subsequent construction;<br />
Verify the location of structures during construction;<br />
As-Built surveying: a survey conducted at the end of the construction project to verify that the work authorized was completed to the specifications set on plans.<br />
<a href="" id="Transportation_engineering" name="Transportation_engineering"></a><br />
<b><i>Transportation engineering<br />
</i></b><br />
</div><br />
<div>Transportation engineering is concerned with moving people and goods efficiently, safely, and in a manner conducive to a vibrant community. This involves specifying, designing, constructing, and maintaining transportation infrastructure which includes <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streets" title="Streets">streets</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canals" title="Canals">canals</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Highways" title="Highways">highways</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rail_transport" title="Rail transport">rail systems</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airport" title="Airport">airports</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port" title="Port">ports</a>, and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_transit" title="Mass transit">mass transit</a>. It includes areas such as transportation design, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transportation_planning" title="Transportation planning">transportation planning</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traffic_engineering" title="Traffic engineering">traffic engineering</a>, some aspects of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Municipal_or_urban_engineering" title="Municipal or urban engineering">urban engineering</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queueing_theory" title="Queueing theory">queueing theory</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pavement_engineering" title="Pavement engineering">pavement engineering</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_Transportation_System" title="Intelligent Transportation System">Intelligent Transportation System</a> (ITS), and infrastructure management.<br />
<a href="" id="Municipal_or_urban_engineering" name="Municipal_or_urban_engineering"></a><br />
<i><b>Municipal or urban engineering<br />
</b></i><br />
</div><br />
<div><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_engineering" title="Urban engineering">Municipal engineering</a> is concerned with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Municipality" title="Municipality">municipal</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure" title="Infrastructure">infrastructure</a>. This involves specifying, designing, constructing, and maintaining <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streets" title="Streets">streets</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidewalks" title="Sidewalks">sidewalks</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Municipal_water_supply" title="Municipal water supply">water supply networks</a>, sewers, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Street_light" title="Street light">street lighting</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Municipal_solid_waste" title="Municipal solid waste">municipal solid waste</a> management and disposal, storage depots for various bulk materials used for maintenance and public works (salt, sand, etc), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_park" title="Urban park">public parks</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Segregated_cycle_facilities" title="Segregated cycle facilities">bicycle paths</a>. In the case of underground <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_utility" title="Public utility">utility</a> networks, it may also include the civil portion (conduits and access chambers) of the local distribution networks of electrical and telecommunications services. It can also include the optimizing of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Municipal_solid_waste" title="Municipal solid waste">garbage</a> collection and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_transport_bus_service" title="Public transport bus service">bus service</a> networks. Some of these disciplines overlap with other civil engineering specialties, however municipal engineering focuses on the coordination of these infrastructure networks and services, as they are often built simultaneously, and managed by the same municipal authority.<br />
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source : wikipedia<br />
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</div>Gabungan Mahasiswa Kejuruteraanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03438000291098117936noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4269717405423804192.post-66555831752412095412009-09-09T21:17:00.000-07:002009-10-19T06:08:16.242-07:00Mechanical Engineering<a href="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/Volkswagen_W16.jpg"><img alt="" border="0" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/Volkswagen_W16.jpg" style="display: block; height: 392px; margin: 0px auto 10px; text-align: center; width: 454px;" /></a><br />
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<div><b><span style="color: black; font-size: 130%;">Termology</span></b><br />
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<div><span style="color: black;"></span><br />
</div><div><span style="color: black;">Mechanical Engineering is an </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering"><span style="color: black;">engineering</span></a><span style="color: black;"> discipline that was developed from the application of principles from </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#branches_of_physics" title="Physics"><span style="color: black;">physics</span></a><span style="color: black;"> and </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materials_science" title="Materials science"><span style="color: black;">materials science</span></a><span style="color: black;">. Mechanical engineering involves the </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analysis" title="Analysis"><span style="color: black;">analysis</span></a><span style="color: black;">, </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design" title="Design"><span style="color: black;">design</span></a><span style="color: black;">, </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manufacturing" title="Manufacturing"><span style="color: black;">manufacturing</span></a><span style="color: black;">, and maintenance of various systems. It is one of the oldest and broadest </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fields_of_engineering" title="Fields of engineering"><span style="color: black;">engineering disciplines</span></a><span style="color: black;">.</span><br />
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<span style="color: black;">The field requires a solid understanding of core concepts including </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanics" title="Mechanics"><span style="color: black;">mechanics</span></a><span style="color: black;">, </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinematics" title="Kinematics"><span style="color: black;">kinematics</span></a><span style="color: black;">, </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics"><span style="color: black;">thermodynamics</span></a><span style="color: black;">, </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluid_mechanics" title="Fluid mechanics"><span style="color: black;">fluid mechanics</span></a><span style="color: black;">, </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materials_science" title="Materials science"><span style="color: black;">materials science</span></a><span style="color: black;">, and </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy" title="Energy"><span style="color: black;">energy</span></a><span style="color: black;">. Mechanical engineers use the core principles as well as other knowledge in the field to design and analyze </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manufacturing_plants" title="Manufacturing plants"><span style="color: black;">manufacturing plants</span></a><span style="color: black;">, industrial equipment and machinery, </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HVAC" title="HVAC"><span style="color: black;">heating and cooling systems</span></a><span style="color: black;">, motor vehicles, </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft" title="Aircraft"><span style="color: black;">aircraft</span></a><span style="color: black;">, </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watercraft" title="Watercraft"><span style="color: black;">watercraft</span></a><span style="color: black;">, </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics" title="Robotics"><span style="color: black;">robotics</span></a><span style="color: black;">, </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_devices" title="Medical devices"><span style="color: black;">medical devices</span></a><span style="color: black;"> and more.</span><br />
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<div><b><span style="color: black; font-size: 130%;">Development</span></b><br />
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</div><div><span style="color: black;">Applications of mechanical engineering are found in the records of many ancient and medieval societies throughout the globe. In </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece"><span style="color: black;">ancient Greece</span></a><span style="color: black;">, the works of </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archimedes" title="Archimedes"><span style="color: black;">Archimedes</span></a><span style="color: black;"> (287 BC–212 BC) and </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hero_of_Alexandria" title="Hero of Alexandria"><span style="color: black;">Heron of Alexandria</span></a><span style="color: black;"> (c. 10–70 AD) deeply influenced mechanics in the Western tradition. In </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_China#Han_Dynasty" title="History of China"><span style="color: black;">China</span></a><span style="color: black;">, </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhang_Heng" title="Zhang Heng"><span style="color: black;">Zhang Heng</span></a><span style="color: black;"> (78–139 AD) improved a </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_clock" title="Water clock"><span style="color: black;">water clock</span></a><span style="color: black;"> and invented a </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seismometer" title="Seismometer"><span style="color: black;">seismometer</span></a><span style="color: black;">, and </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ma_Jun" title="Ma Jun"><span style="color: black;">Ma Jun</span></a><span style="color: black;"> (200–265 AD) invented a chariot with </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_%28mechanical_device%29" title="Differential (mechanical device)"><span style="color: black;">differential</span></a><span style="color: black;"> gears. The medieval Chinese horologist and engineer </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Su_Song" title="Su Song"><span style="color: black;">Su Song</span></a><span style="color: black;"> (1020–1101 AD) incorporated an </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escapement" title="Escapement"><span style="color: black;">escapement</span></a><span style="color: black;"> mechanism into his </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical" title="Astronomical"><span style="color: black;">astronomical</span></a><span style="color: black;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clock_tower" title="Clock tower"><span style="color: black;">clock tower</span></a><span style="color: black;"> two centuries before any escapement could be found in clocks of medieval Europe, as well as the world's first known endless power-transmitting </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chain_drive" title="Chain drive"><span style="color: black;">chain drive</span></a><span style="color: black;">.</span><br />
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<span style="color: black;">During the years from 7th to 15th century, the era called the Islamic golden age, there have been remarkable contributions from Muslims in the field of mechanical technology, </span><a class="new" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Al_Jaziri&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Al Jaziri (page does not exist)"><span style="color: black;">Al Jaziri</span></a><span style="color: black;">, who was one of them wrote his famous "Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices" in 1206 presented many mechanical designs. He is also considered to be the inventor of such mechanical devices which now form the very basic of mechanisms, such as crank and cam shafts.During the early 19th century in </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/England" title="England"><span style="color: black;">England</span></a><span style="color: black;"> and </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland"><span style="color: black;">Scotland</span></a><span style="color: black;">, the development of machine tools led mechanical engineering to develop as a separate field within engineering, providing manufacturing machines and the engines to power them.</span><br />
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<div><span style="color: black;">The first British professional society of mechanical engineers was formed in 1847, thirty years after civil engineers formed the first such professional society.In the </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" title="United States"><span style="color: black;">United States</span></a><span style="color: black;">, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) was formed in 1880, becoming the third such professional engineering society, after the American Society of Civil Engineers (1852) and the American Institute of Mining Engineers (1871).The first schools in the United States to offer an engineering education were the </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Military_Academy" title="United States Military Academy"><span style="color: black;">United States Military Academy</span></a><span style="color: black;"> in 1817, an institution now known as </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwich_University" title="Norwich University"><span style="color: black;">Norwich University</span></a><span style="color: black;"> in 1819, and </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rensselaer_Polytechnic_Institute" title="Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute"><span style="color: black;">Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute</span></a><span style="color: black;"> in 1825. Education in mechanical engineering has historically been based on a strong foundation in mathematics and science.The field of mechanical engineering is considered among the broadest of engineering disciplines. The work of mechanical engineering ranges from the depths of the ocean to outer space.</span><br />
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<div><b><span style="color: black; font-size: 130%;">Subfield</span></b><br />
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</div><div><span style="color: black;">The field of mechanical engineering can be thought of as a collection of many mechanical disciplines. Several of these subdisciplines which are typically taught at the undergraduate level are listed below, with a brief explanation and the most common application of each. Some of these subdisciplines are unique to mechanical engineering, while others are a combination of mechanical engineering and one or more other disciplines. Most work that a mechanical engineer does uses skills and techniques from several of these subdisciplines, as well as specialized subdisciplines. Specialized subdisciplines, as used in this article, are more likely to be the subject of graduate studies or on-the-job training than undergraduate research. Several specialized subdisciplines are discussed at the end of this section.</span><br />
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<div><span style="color: black;">Mechanics<br />
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</span><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mohrs_circle.png" title="Enlarge"></a><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohr%27s_circle" title="Mohr's circle"><span style="color: black;">Mohr's circle</span></a><span style="color: black;">, a common tool to study </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_%28physics%29" title="Stress (physics)"><span style="color: black;">stresses</span></a><span style="color: black;"> in a </span><a class="new" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mechanical_element&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Mechanical element (page does not exist)"><span style="color: black;">mechanical element</span></a><br />
<span style="color: black;">Mechanics is, in the most general sense, the study of </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Force" title="Force"><span style="color: black;">forces</span></a><span style="color: black;"> and their effect upon </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matter" title="Matter"><span style="color: black;">matter</span></a><span style="color: black;">. Typically, engineering mechanics is used to analyze and predict the acceleration and deformation (both </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elastic_Deformation" title="Elastic Deformation"><span style="color: black;">elastic</span></a><span style="color: black;"> and </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic_Deformation" title="Plastic Deformation"><span style="color: black;">plastic</span></a><span style="color: black;">) of objects under known forces (also called loads) or </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_%28physics%29" title="Stress (physics)"><span style="color: black;">stresses</span></a><span style="color: black;">.</span><br />
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</div><div><span style="color: black;">Subdisciplines of mechanics include</span><br />
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<div><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statics" title="Statics"><span style="color: black;">Statics</span></a><span style="color: black;">, the study of non-moving bodies under known loads<br />
</span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamics_%28mechanics%29" title="Dynamics (mechanics)"><span style="color: black;">Dynamics</span></a><span style="color: black;"> (or kinetics), the study of how forces affect moving bodies<br />
</span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanics_of_materials" title="Mechanics of materials"><span style="color: black;">Mechanics of materials</span></a><span style="color: black;">, the study of how different </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materials" title="Materials"><span style="color: black;">materials</span></a><span style="color: black;"> deform under various types of stress<br />
</span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluid_mechanics" title="Fluid mechanics"><span style="color: black;">Fluid mechanics</span></a><span style="color: black;">, the study of how fluids react to forces</span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_engineering#cite_note-18"><span style="color: black;">[19]</span></a><span style="color: black;"><br />
</span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuum_mechanics" title="Continuum mechanics"><span style="color: black;">Continuum mechanics</span></a><span style="color: black;">, a method of applying mechanics that assumes that objects are continuous (rather than </span><a class="extiw" href="http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/discrete" title="wikt:discrete"><span style="color: black;">discrete</span></a><span style="color: black;">) </span><br />
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<div><span style="color: black;">Mechanical engineers typically use mechanics in the design or analysis phases of engineering. If the engineering project were the design of a vehicle, statics might be employed to design the frame of the vehicle, in order to evaluate where the stresses will be most intense. Dynamics might be used when designing the car's engine, to evaluate the forces in the </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piston" title="Piston"><span style="color: black;">pistons</span></a><span style="color: black;"> and </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cam" title="Cam"><span style="color: black;">cams</span></a><span style="color: black;"> as the engine cycles. Mechanics of materials might be used to choose appropriate materials for the frame and engine. Fluid mechanics might be used to design a ventilation system for the vehicle (see </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HVAC" title="HVAC"><span style="color: black;">HVAC</span></a><span style="color: black;">), or to design the </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intake" title="Intake"><span style="color: black;">intake</span></a><span style="color: black;"> system for the engine.</span><br />
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<div><span style="color: black;">Kinematics<br />
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Kinematics is the study of the motion of bodies (objects) and systems (groups of objects), while ignoring the forces that cause the motion. The movement of a crane and the oscillations of a piston in an engine are both simple kinematic systems. The crane is a type of open kinematic chain, while the piston is part of a closed </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_bar_linkage" title="Four bar linkage"><span style="color: black;">four bar linkage</span></a><span style="color: black;">.<br />
Mechanical engineers typically use kinematics in the design and analysis of </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanisms" title="Mechanisms"><span style="color: black;">mechanisms</span></a><span style="color: black;">. Kinematics can be used to find the possible range of motion for a given mechanism, or, working in reverse, can be used to design a mechanism that has a desired range of motion.<br />
</span><a href="" id="Mechatronics_and_robotics" name="Mechatronics_and_robotics"></a><br />
<span style="color: black;">Mechatronics and robotics<br />
</span><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FMS1_small.JPG" title="Training FMS with learning robot SCORBOT-ER 4u, workbench CNC Mill and CNC Lathe"></a><br />
<a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FMS1_small.JPG" title="Enlarge"></a><span style="color: black;">Training FMS with learning robot </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SCORBOT-ER_4u" title="SCORBOT-ER 4u"><span style="color: black;">SCORBOT-ER 4u</span></a><span style="color: black;">, workbench CNC Mill and CNC Lathe<br />
Mechatronics is an interdisciplinary branch of mechanical engineering, </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_engineering" title="Electrical engineering"><span style="color: black;">electrical engineering</span></a><span style="color: black;"> and </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_engineering" title="Software engineering"><span style="color: black;">software engineering</span></a><span style="color: black;"> that is concerned with integrating electrical and mechanical engineering to create hybrid systems. In this way, machines can be automated through the use of </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_motor" title="Electric motor"><span style="color: black;">electric motors</span></a><span style="color: black;">, </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Servomechanism" title="Servomechanism"><span style="color: black;">servo-mechanisms</span></a><span style="color: black;">, and other electrical systems in conjunction with special software. A common example of a mechatronics system is a CD-ROM drive. Mechanical systems open and close the drive, spin the CD and move the laser, while an optical system reads the data on the CD and converts it to </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bit" title="Bit"><span style="color: black;">bits</span></a><span style="color: black;">. Integrated software controls the process and communicates the contents of the CD to the computer.</span><br />
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<div><span style="color: black;">Robotics is the application of mechatronics to create robots, which are often used in industry to perform tasks that are dangerous, unpleasant, or repetitive. These robots may be of any shape and size, but all are preprogrammed and interact physically with the world. To create a robot, an engineer typically employs kinematics (to determine the robot's range of motion) and mechanics (to determine the </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_%28physics%29" title="Stress (physics)"><span style="color: black;">stresses</span></a><span style="color: black;"> within the robot).</span><br />
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<div><span style="color: black;">Robots are used extensively in </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_engineering" title="Industrial engineering"><span style="color: black;">industrial engineering</span></a><span style="color: black;">. They allow businesses to save money on labor, perform tasks that are either too dangerous or too precise for humans to perform them economically, and to insure better quality. Many companies employ </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assembly_lines" title="Assembly lines"><span style="color: black;">assembly lines</span></a><span style="color: black;"> of robots, and some factories are so robotized that they can run </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lights_out_%28manufacturing%29" title="Lights out (manufacturing)"><span style="color: black;">by themselves</span></a><span style="color: black;">. Outside the factory, robots have been employed in bomb disposal, </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_exploration" title="Space exploration"><span style="color: black;">space exploration</span></a><span style="color: black;">, and many other fields. Robots are also sold for various residential applications.</span><br />
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</div><div><span style="color: black;">Structural analysis</span><br />
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<div><span style="color: black;">Structural analysis is the branch of mechanical engineering (and also civil engineering) devoted to examining why and how objects fail. Structural failures occur in two general modes: static failure, and fatigue failure. Static structural failure occurs when, upon being loaded (having a force applied) the object being analyzed either breaks or is deformed </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic_deformation" title="Plastic deformation"><span style="color: black;">plastically</span></a><span style="color: black;">, depending on the criterion for failure. Fatigue failure occurs when an object fails after a number of repeated loading and unloading cycles. Fatigue failure occurs because of imperfections in the object: a microscopic crack on the surface of the object, for instance, will grow slightly with each cycle (propagation) until the crack is large enough to cause </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultimate_failure" title="Ultimate failure"><span style="color: black;">ultimate failure</span></a><span style="color: black;">.</span><br />
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<div><span style="color: black;">Failure is not simply defined as when a part breaks, however; it is defined as when a part does not operate as intended. Some systems, such as the perforated top sections of some plastic bags, are designed to break. If these systems do not break, failure analysis might be employed to determine the cause.</span><br />
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<div><span style="color: black;">Structural analysis is often used by mechanical engineers after a failure has occurred, or when designing to prevent failure. Engineers often use online documents and books such as those published by ASM to aid them in determining the type of failure and possible causes.<br />
Structural analysis may be used in the office when designing parts, in the field to analyze failed parts, or in laboratories where parts might undergo controlled failure tests.<br />
</span><a href="" id="Thermodynamics_and_thermo-science" name="Thermodynamics_and_thermo-science"></a><br />
<span style="color: black;">Thermodynamics and thermo-science<br />
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</span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics"><span style="color: black;">Thermodynamics</span></a><span style="color: black;"> is an applied science used in several branches of engineering, including mechanical and </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_engineering" title="Chemical engineering"><span style="color: black;">chemical engineering</span></a><span style="color: black;">. At its simplest, thermodynamics is the study of energy, its use and transformation through a </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_system" title="Physical system"><span style="color: black;">system</span></a><span style="color: black;">. Typically, engineering thermodynamics is concerned with changing energy from one form to another. As an example, automotive engines convert chemical energy (</span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enthalpy" title="Enthalpy"><span style="color: black;">enthalpy</span></a><span style="color: black;">) from the fuel into heat, and then into mechanical work that eventually turns the wheels.</span><br />
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<div><span style="color: black;">Thermodynamics principles are used by mechanical engineers in the fields of </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_transfer" title="Heat transfer"><span style="color: black;">heat transfer</span></a><span style="color: black;">, </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermofluids" title="Thermofluids"><span style="color: black;">thermofluids</span></a><span style="color: black;">, and </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_conversion" title="Energy conversion"><span style="color: black;">energy conversion</span></a><span style="color: black;">. Mechanical engineers use thermo-science to design </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engine" title="Engine"><span style="color: black;">engines</span></a><span style="color: black;"> and </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_plant" title="Power plant"><span style="color: black;">power plants</span></a><span style="color: black;">, heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (</span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HVAC" title="HVAC"><span style="color: black;">HVAC</span></a><span style="color: black;">) systems, </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_exchanger" title="Heat exchanger"><span style="color: black;">heat exchangers</span></a><span style="color: black;">, </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_sink" title="Heat sink"><span style="color: black;">heat sinks</span></a><span style="color: black;">, </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiator" title="Radiator"><span style="color: black;">radiators</span></a><span style="color: black;">, </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refrigeration" title="Refrigeration"><span style="color: black;">refrigeration</span></a><span style="color: black;">, </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_insulation" title="Thermal insulation"><span style="color: black;">insulation</span></a><span style="color: black;">, and others.<br />
</span><a href="" id="Drafting" name="Drafting"></a><br />
<span style="color: black;">Drafting<br />
</span><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mech_2_3D.png" title="A CAD model of a mechanical double seal"></a><br />
<a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mech_2_3D.png" title="Enlarge"></a><span style="color: black;">A CAD model of a </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_seal" title="Mechanical seal"><span style="color: black;">mechanical double seal</span></a><span style="color: black;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_drawing" title="Technical drawing"><span style="color: black;">Drafting</span></a><span style="color: black;"> or technical drawing is the means by which mechanical engineers create instructions for </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manufacture" title="Manufacture"><span style="color: black;">manufacturing</span></a><span style="color: black;"> parts. A technical drawing can be a computer model or hand-drawn schematic showing all the dimensions necessary to manufacture a part, as well as assembly notes, a list of required materials, and other pertinent information. A U.S. mechanical engineer or skilled worker who creates technical drawings may be referred to as a drafter or draftsman. Drafting has historically been a two-dimensional process, but </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CAD" title="CAD"><span style="color: black;">computer-aided design</span></a><span style="color: black;"> (CAD) programs now allow the designer to create in three dimensions.<br />
Instructions for manufacturing a part must be fed to the necessary machinery, either manually, through programmed instructions, or through the use of a </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CAM" title="CAM"><span style="color: black;">computer-aided manufacturing</span></a><span style="color: black;"> (CAM) or combined CAD/CAM program. Optionally, an engineer may also manually manufacture a part using the technical drawings, but this is becoming an increasing rarity, with the advent of </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNC" title="CNC"><span style="color: black;">computer numerically controlled</span></a><span style="color: black;"> (CNC) manufacturing. Engineers primarily manually manufacture parts in the areas of applied </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_spray" title="Thermal spray"><span style="color: black;">spray coatings</span></a><span style="color: black;">, finishes, and other processes that cannot economically or practically be done by a machine.</span><br />
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<div><span style="color: black;">Drafting is used in nearly every subdiscipline of mechanical engineering, and by many other branches of engineering and architecture. Three-dimensional models created using CAD software are also commonly used in </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finite_element_analysis" title="Finite element analysis"><span style="color: black;">finite element analysis</span></a><span style="color: black;"> (FEA) and </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_fluid_dynamics" title="Computational fluid dynamics"><span style="color: black;">computational fluid dynamics</span></a><span style="color: black;"> (CFD).<br />
</span><a href="" id="Frontiers_of_research" name="Frontiers_of_research"></a><br />
<span style="color: black;">Frontiers of research</span><br />
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<div><span style="color: black;">Mechanical engineers are constantly pushing the boundaries of what is physically possible in order to produce safer, cheaper, and more efficient machines and mechanical systems. Some technologies at the cutting edge of mechanical engineering are listed below .</span><br />
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</div><div><span style="color: black;">Micro Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS)</span><br />
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<div><span style="color: black;">Micron-scale mechanical components such as springs, gears, fluidic and heat transfer devices are fabricated from a variety of substrate materials such as silicon, glass and polymers like SU8. Examples of MEMS components will be the accelerometers that are used as car airbag sensors, gyroscopes for precise positioning and microfluidic devices used in biomedical applications.<br />
</span><a href="" id="Composites" name="Composites"></a><br />
<span style="color: black;">Composites<br />
</span><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kohlenstofffasermatte.jpg" title="Composite cloth consisting of woven carbon fiber."></a><br />
<a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kohlenstofffasermatte.jpg" title="Enlarge"></a><span style="color: black;">Composite cloth consisting of woven carbon fiber.<br />
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Composites or composite materials are a combination of materials which provide different physical characteristics than either material separately. Composite material research within mechanical engineering typically focuses on designing (and, subsequently, finding applications for) stronger or more rigid materials while attempting to reduce weight, susceptibility to corrosion, and other undesirable factors. Carbon fiber reinforced composites, for instance, have been used in such diverse applications as spacecraft and fishing rods.</span><br />
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</div><div><span style="color: black;">Mechatronics</span><br />
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<div><span style="color: black;">Mechatronics is the synergistic combination of mechanical engineering, electronic engineering, and software engineering. The purpose of this interdisciplinary engineering field is the study of automata from an engineering perspective and serves the purposes of controlling advanced hybrid systems.<br />
</span><a href="" id="Nanotechnology" name="Nanotechnology"></a><br />
<span style="color: black;">Nanotechnology</span><br />
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<div><span style="color: black;">At the smallest scales, mechanical engineering becomes nanotechnology and </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_engineering" title="Molecular engineering"><span style="color: black;">molecular engineering</span></a><span style="color: black;">—one speculative goal of which is to create a </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_assembler" title="Molecular assembler"><span style="color: black;">molecular assembler</span></a><span style="color: black;"> to build molecules and materials via </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanosynthesis" title="Mechanosynthesis"><span style="color: black;">mechanosynthesis</span></a><span style="color: black;">. For now that goal remains within </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exploratory_engineering" title="Exploratory engineering"><span style="color: black;">exploratory engineering</span></a><span style="color: black;">.<br />
</span><a href="" id="Finite_Element_Analysis" name="Finite_Element_Analysis"></a><br />
<span style="color: black;">Finite Element Analysis</span><br />
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<div><span style="color: black;">This field is not new, as the basis of Finite Element Analysis (FEA) or Finite Element Method (FEM) dates back to 1941. But evolution of computers has made FEM a viable option for analysis of structural problems. Many commercial codes such as </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ANSYS" title="ANSYS"><span style="color: black;">ANSYS</span></a><span style="color: black;">, </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nastran" title="Nastran"><span style="color: black;">Nastran</span></a><span style="color: black;"> and </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABAQUS" title="ABAQUS"><span style="color: black;">ABAQUS</span></a><span style="color: black;"> are widely used in industry for research and design of components.Other techniques such as Finite Difference Method (FDM) and Finite Volume Method (FVM) are employed to solve problems relating heat and mass transfer, fluid flows, fluid surface interaction etc.</span><br />
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<span style="color: black;">source : wikipedia <br />
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</div>Gabungan Mahasiswa Kejuruteraanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03438000291098117936noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4269717405423804192.post-11468174758007663782009-09-09T21:04:00.000-07:002009-10-19T06:09:42.403-07:00Electronic Engineering<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjPd8tyX3MEO2oo3VEG5xYToLlJeqAxxeX82H_ElMR4IV0aFSOxOH0yjwjMwABSKpxBb88mADxUFjAfJFW1bxIfcABI07Y_K1srbGxEq2YjPImQsmTLTVzz5UapHAWBnGuJ7IMJlSJxgGYM/s1600-h/800px-Componentes.jpg"><img alt="" border="0" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5379687877434387746" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjPd8tyX3MEO2oo3VEG5xYToLlJeqAxxeX82H_ElMR4IV0aFSOxOH0yjwjMwABSKpxBb88mADxUFjAfJFW1bxIfcABI07Y_K1srbGxEq2YjPImQsmTLTVzz5UapHAWBnGuJ7IMJlSJxgGYM/s320/800px-Componentes.jpg" style="display: block; height: 220px; margin: 0px auto 10px; text-align: center; width: 320px;" /></a><br />
<div><div><span style="color: black; font-size: 130%;"><b>Termology</b></span><br />
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<span style="color: black;">Electronics Engineering also referred to as Electronic Engineering is an </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering"><span style="color: black;">engineering</span></a><span style="color: black;"> discipline which uses the scientific knowledge of the behavior and effects of </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron" title="Electron"><span style="color: black;">electrons</span></a><span style="color: black;"> to develop components, devices, systems, or equipment (as in </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_tubes" title="Electron tubes"><span style="color: black;">electron tubes</span></a><span style="color: black;">, </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistors" title="Transistors"><span style="color: black;">transistors</span></a><span style="color: black;">, </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit"><span style="color: black;">integrated circuits</span></a><span style="color: black;">, and </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printed_circuit_board" title="Printed circuit board"><span style="color: black;">printed circuit boards</span></a><span style="color: black;">) that uses electrictity as part of its driving force. Both terms denote a broad engineering field that encompasses many subfields including those that deal with </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_power" title="Electrical power"><span style="color: black;">power</span></a><span style="color: black;">, </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumentation_engineering" title="Instrumentation engineering"><span style="color: black;">instrumentation engineering</span></a><span style="color: black;">, </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications" title="Telecommunications"><span style="color: black;">telecommunications</span></a><span style="color: black;">, and </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor"><span style="color: black;">semiconductor</span></a><span style="color: black;"> </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_circuit" title="Electrical circuit"><span style="color: black;">circuit</span></a><span style="color: black;"> design amongst many others.</span><br />
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<span style="color: black;">The term also covers a large part of </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_engineering" title="Electrical engineering"><span style="color: black;">electrical engineering</span></a><span style="color: black;"> degree courses as studied at most European universities. In the U.S., however, electrical engineering implies all the wide electrical disciplines including electronics. The </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_of_Electrical_and_Electronics_Engineers" title="Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"><span style="color: black;">Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers</span></a><span style="color: black;"> is one of the most important and influential organizations for electronic engineers. </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India" title="India"><span style="color: black;">Indian</span></a><span style="color: black;"> universities have separate department for "Electronics Engineering".</span><br />
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<span style="color: black;">The name </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_engineering" title="Electrical engineering"><span style="color: black;">electrical engineering</span></a><span style="color: black;"> is still used to cover electronic engineering amongst some of the older (notably American) universities and graduates there are called </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_engineers" title="Electrical engineers"><span style="color: black;">electrical engineers</span></a><span style="color: black;">.Some people believe the term "electrical engineer" should be reserved for those having specialized in power and heavy current or high voltage engineering, while others believe that power is just one subset of electrical engineering (and indeed the term "power engineering" is used in that industry) as well as "electrical distribution engineering". Again, in recent years there has been a growth of new separate-entry degree courses such as "</span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_engineering" title="Information engineering"><span style="color: black;">information engineering</span></a><span style="color: black;">" and "</span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication_systems_engineering" title="Communication systems engineering"><span style="color: black;">communication systems engineering</span></a><span style="color: black;">", often followed by academic departments of similar name.</span><br />
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<span style="color: black;">Most European universities now refer to </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_engineering" title="Electrical engineering"><span style="color: black;">electrical engineering</span></a><span style="color: black;"> as power engineers and make a distinction between Electrical and Electronics Engineering. Beginning in the 1980s, the term </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_engineer" title="Computer engineer"><span style="color: black;">computer engineer</span></a><span style="color: black;"> was often used to refer to electronic or information engineers. However, Computer Engineering is now considered a subset of Electronics Engineering and the term is now becoming archaic. </span><br />
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<b><span style="color: black; font-size: 130%;">History of Electronic Engineering</span></b><br />
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<span style="color: black;">Electronic engineering as a profession sprang from technological improvements in the </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telegraph" title="Telegraph"><span style="color: black;">telegraph</span></a><span style="color: black;"> industry in the late 1800s and the </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio" title="Radio"><span style="color: black;">radio</span></a><span style="color: black;"> and the </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone" title="Telephone"><span style="color: black;">telephone</span></a><span style="color: black;"> industries in the early 1900s. People were attracted to radio by the technical fascination it inspired, first in receiving and then in transmitting. Many who went into broadcasting in the 1920s were only "amateurs" in the period before World War I.</span><br />
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<span style="color: black;">The modern discipline of electronic engineering was to a large extent born out of telephone, radio, and </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television" title="Television"><span style="color: black;">television</span></a><span style="color: black;"> equipment development and the large amount of electronic systems development during </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II"><span style="color: black;">World War II</span></a><span style="color: black;"> of </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radar" title="Radar"><span style="color: black;">radar</span></a><span style="color: black;">, </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonar" title="Sonar"><span style="color: black;">sonar</span></a><span style="color: black;">, communication systems, and advanced munitions and weapon systems. In the interwar years, the subject was known as </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_engineering" title="Radio engineering"><span style="color: black;">radio engineering</span></a><span style="color: black;"> and it was only in the late 1950s that the term electronic engineering started to emerge.</span><br />
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<span style="color: black;">The electronic laboratories (</span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_Labs" title="Bell Labs"><span style="color: black;">Bell Labs</span></a><span style="color: black;"> in the United States for instance) created and subsidized by large corporations in the industries of radio, television, and telephone equipment began churning out a series of electronic advances. In 1948, came the transistor and in 1960, the IC to revolutionize the electronic industry.In the UK, the subject of electronic engineering became distinct from </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_engineering" title="Electrical engineering"><span style="color: black;">electrical engineering</span></a><span style="color: black;"> as a </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University" title="University"><span style="color: black;">university</span></a><span style="color: black;"> degree subject around 1960. Before this time, students of electronics and related subjects like radio and telecommunications had to enroll in the </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_engineering" title="Electrical engineering"><span style="color: black;">electrical engineering</span></a><span style="color: black;"> department of the university as no university had departments of electronics. Electrical engineering was the nearest subject with which electronic engineering could be aligned, although the similarities in subjects covered (except mathematics and electromagnetism) lasted only for the first year of the three-year course.</span><br />
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<b><span style="color: black; font-size: 130%;">Subfields</span></b><br />
<span style="color: black;"></span><br />
<span style="color: black;">Electronics engineering has many subfields. This section describes some of the most popular subfields in electronic engineering. Although there are engineers who focus exclusively on one subfield, there are also many who focus on a combination of subfields.<br />
</span><a href="" id="Overview_of_electronic_engineering" name="Overview_of_electronic_engineering"></a><br />
<b><span style="color: black;">Overview of electronic engineering</span></b><br />
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<span style="color: black;">Electronic engineering involves the design and testing of </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_circuit" title="Electronic circuit"><span style="color: black;">electronic circuits</span></a><span style="color: black;"> that use the </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronics" title="Electronics"><span style="color: black;">electronic</span></a><span style="color: black;"> properties of </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_element" title="Electrical element"><span style="color: black;">components</span></a><span style="color: black;"> such as </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resistor" title="Resistor"><span style="color: black;">resistors</span></a><span style="color: black;">, </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitor" title="Capacitor"><span style="color: black;">capacitors</span></a><span style="color: black;">, </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductor" title="Inductor"><span style="color: black;">inductors</span></a><span style="color: black;">, </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diode" title="Diode"><span style="color: black;">diodes</span></a><span style="color: black;"> and </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor"><span style="color: black;">transistors</span></a><span style="color: black;"> to achieve a particular functionality.</span><br />
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<span style="color: black;">Signal processing deals with the analysis and manipulation of </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal_%28information_theory%29" title="Signal (information theory)"><span style="color: black;">signals</span></a><span style="color: black;">. Signals can be either </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog_signal" title="Analog signal"><span style="color: black;">analog</span></a><span style="color: black;">, in which case the signal varies continuously according to the information, or </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_signal" title="Digital signal"><span style="color: black;">digital</span></a><span style="color: black;">, in which case the signal varies according to a series of discrete values representing the information.<br />
For analog signals, signal processing may involve the </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplifier" title="Amplifier"><span style="color: black;">amplification</span></a><span style="color: black;"> and </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio_filter" title="Audio filter"><span style="color: black;">filtering</span></a><span style="color: black;"> of audio signals for audio equipment or the </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modulation" title="Modulation"><span style="color: black;">modulation</span></a><span style="color: black;"> and </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demodulation" title="Demodulation"><span style="color: black;">demodulation</span></a><span style="color: black;"> of signals for </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunication" title="Telecommunication"><span style="color: black;">telecommunications</span></a><span style="color: black;">. For digital signals, signal processing may involve the </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_compression" title="Data compression"><span style="color: black;">compression</span></a><span style="color: black;">, </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_checking" title="Error checking"><span style="color: black;">error checking</span></a><span style="color: black;"> and </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_detection" title="Error detection"><span style="color: black;">error detection</span></a><span style="color: black;"> of digital signals.</span><br />
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<span style="color: black;">Telecommunications engineering deals with the </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_%28telecommunications%29" title="Transmission (telecommunications)"><span style="color: black;">transmission</span></a><span style="color: black;"> of </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information" title="Information"><span style="color: black;">information</span></a><span style="color: black;"> across a </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Channel_%28communications%29" title="Channel (communications)"><span style="color: black;">channel</span></a><span style="color: black;"> such as a </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coax_cable" title="Coax cable"><span style="color: black;">co-axial cable</span></a><span style="color: black;">, </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_fiber" title="Optical fiber"><span style="color: black;">optical fiber</span></a><span style="color: black;"> or </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_space" title="Free space"><span style="color: black;">free space</span></a><span style="color: black;">.<br />
Transmissions across free space require information to be encoded in a </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrier_wave" title="Carrier wave"><span style="color: black;">carrier wave</span></a><span style="color: black;"> in order to shift the information to a </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrier_frequency" title="Carrier frequency"><span style="color: black;">carrier frequency</span></a><span style="color: black;"> suitable for transmission, this is known as </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modulation" title="Modulation"><span style="color: black;">modulation</span></a><span style="color: black;">. Popular analog modulation techniques include </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplitude_modulation" title="Amplitude modulation"><span style="color: black;">amplitude modulation</span></a><span style="color: black;"> and </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency_modulation" title="Frequency modulation"><span style="color: black;">frequency modulation</span></a><span style="color: black;">. The choice of modulation affects the cost and performance of a system and these two factors must be balanced carefully by the engineer.</span><br />
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<span style="color: black;">Once the transmission characteristics of a system are determined, telecommunication engineers design the </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmitter" title="Transmitter"><span style="color: black;">transmitters</span></a><span style="color: black;"> and </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Receiver_%28radio%29" title="Receiver (radio)"><span style="color: black;">receivers</span></a><span style="color: black;"> needed for such systems. These two are sometimes combined to form a two-way communication device known as a </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transceiver" title="Transceiver"><span style="color: black;">transceiver</span></a><span style="color: black;">. A key consideration in the design of transmitters is their </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_consumption" title="Power consumption"><span style="color: black;">power consumption</span></a><span style="color: black;"> as this is closely related to their </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal_strength" title="Signal strength"><span style="color: black;">signal strength</span></a><span style="color: black;">. If the signal strength of a transmitter is insufficient the signal's information will be corrupted by </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal_noise" title="Signal noise"><span style="color: black;">noise</span></a><span style="color: black;">.</span><br />
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<span style="color: black;">Control engineering has a wide range of applications from the flight and propulsion systems of </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airliner" title="Airliner"><span style="color: black;">commercial airplanes</span></a><span style="color: black;"> to the </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cruise_control" title="Cruise control"><span style="color: black;">cruise control</span></a><span style="color: black;"> present in many modern </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automobile" title="Automobile"><span style="color: black;">cars</span></a><span style="color: black;">. It also plays an important role in </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_automation" title="Industrial automation"><span style="color: black;">industrial automation</span></a><span style="color: black;">.</span><br />
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<span style="color: black;">Control engineers often utilize </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feedback" title="Feedback"><span style="color: black;">feedback</span></a><span style="color: black;"> when designing </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_system" title="Control system"><span style="color: black;">control systems</span></a><span style="color: black;">. For example, in a </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automobile" title="Automobile"><span style="color: black;">car</span></a><span style="color: black;"> with </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cruise_control" title="Cruise control"><span style="color: black;">cruise control</span></a><span style="color: black;"> the vehicle's </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speed" title="Speed"><span style="color: black;">speed</span></a><span style="color: black;"> is continuously monitored and fed back to the system which adjusts the </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine" title="Internal combustion engine"><span style="color: black;">engine's</span></a><span style="color: black;"> power output accordingly. Where there is regular feedback, </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_theory" title="Control theory"><span style="color: black;">control theory</span></a><span style="color: black;"> can be used to determine how the system responds to such feedback.</span><br />
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<span style="color: black;">Instrumentation engineering deals with the design of devices to measure physical quantities such as </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressure" title="Pressure"><span style="color: black;">pressure</span></a><span style="color: black;">, </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flow" title="Flow"><span style="color: black;">flow</span></a><span style="color: black;"> and </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature"><span style="color: black;">temperature</span></a><span style="color: black;">. These devices are known as </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumentation" title="Instrumentation"><span style="color: black;">instrumentation</span></a><span style="color: black;">.The design of such instrumentation requires a good understanding of </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics" title="Physics"><span style="color: black;">physics</span></a><span style="color: black;"> that often extends beyond </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism"><span style="color: black;">electromagnetic theory</span></a><span style="color: black;">. For example, </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radar_gun" title="Radar gun"><span style="color: black;">radar guns</span></a><span style="color: black;"> use the </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doppler_effect" title="Doppler effect"><span style="color: black;">Doppler effect</span></a><span style="color: black;"> to measure the speed of oncoming vehicles. Similarly, </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermocouple" title="Thermocouple"><span style="color: black;">thermocouples</span></a><span style="color: black;"> use the </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peltier-Seebeck_effect" title="Peltier-Seebeck effect"><span style="color: black;">Peltier-Seebeck effect</span></a><span style="color: black;"> to measure the temperature difference between two points.Often instrumentation is not used by itself, but instead as the </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensor" title="Sensor"><span style="color: black;">sensors</span></a><span style="color: black;"> of larger electrical systems. For example, a thermocouple might be used to help ensure a furnace's temperature remains constant. For this reason, instrumentation engineering is often viewed as the counterpart of control engineering.</span><br />
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<span style="color: black;">Computer engineering deals with the design of </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer" title="Computer"><span style="color: black;">computers</span></a><span style="color: black;"> and </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_system" title="Computer system"><span style="color: black;">computer systems</span></a><span style="color: black;">. This may involve the design of new </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardware" title="Hardware"><span style="color: black;">hardware</span></a><span style="color: black;">, the design of </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_digital_assistant" title="Personal digital assistant"><span style="color: black;">PDA's</span></a><span style="color: black;"> or the use of computers to control an </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manufacturing" title="Manufacturing"><span style="color: black;">industrial plant</span></a><span style="color: black;">. Computer engineers may also work on a system's </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software" title="Software"><span style="color: black;">software</span></a><span style="color: black;">. However, the design of complex software systems is often the domain of </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_engineering" title="Software engineering"><span style="color: black;">software engineering</span></a><span style="color: black;">, which is usually considered a separate discipline.</span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desktop_computer" title="Desktop computer"><span style="color: black;">Desktop computers</span></a><span style="color: black;"> represent a tiny fraction of the devices a computer engineer might work on, as computer-like architectures are now found in a range of devices including </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game_console" title="Video game console"><span style="color: black;">video game consoles</span></a><span style="color: black;"> and </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DVD_player" title="DVD player"><span style="color: black;">DVD players</span></a><span style="color: black;">.<br />
</span><a href="" id="Project_engineering" name="Project_engineering"></a><br />
<span style="color: black;">Project engineering - For most engineers not involved at the cutting edge of system design and development, technical work accounts for only a fraction of the work they do. A lot of time is also spent on tasks such as discussing proposals with clients, preparing budgets and determining project schedules. Many senior engineers manage a team of technicians or other engineers and for this reason project management skills are important. Most engineering projects involve some form of documentation and strong written communication skills are therefore very important.</span><br />
<span style="color: black;"><br />
The workplaces of electronics engineers are just as varied as the types of work they do. Electronics engineers may be found in the pristine laboratory environment of a fabrication plant, the offices of a consulting firm or in a research laboratory. During their working life, electronics engineers may find themselves supervising a wide range of individuals including scientists, electricians, computer programmers and other engineers.<br />
<br />
Obsolescence of technical skills is a serious concern for electronics engineers. Membership and participation in technical societies, regular reviews of periodicals in the field and a habit of continued learning are therefore essential to maintaining proficiency. And these are mostly used in the field of consumer electronics products.</span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: black;">source : wikipedia <br />
</span><br />
</div></div>Gabungan Mahasiswa Kejuruteraanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03438000291098117936noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4269717405423804192.post-60097676149966832682009-09-09T20:57:00.000-07:002009-09-14T05:41:35.103-07:00Mechatronic Engineering<p align="center"><a href="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Mecha.gif"><img style="DISPLAY: block; MARGIN: 0px auto 10px; WIDTH: 460px; CURSOR: hand; HEIGHT: 453px; TEXT-ALIGN: center" alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Mecha.gif" border="0" /></a></p><br /><br /><br /><strong><span style="font-size:130%;">Description</span></strong><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><span style="color:#000000;">Mechatronics is centered on </span><a title="Mechanics" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanics"><span style="color:#000000;">mechan<span></span><span></span><span></span>ics</span></a><span style="color:#000000;">, </span><a title="Electronics" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronics"><span style="color:#000000;">electronics</span></a><span style="color:#000000;">, </span><a title="Computing" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computing"><span style="color:#000000;">computing</span></a><span style="color:#000000;">, </span><a title="Control engineering" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_engineering"><span style="color:#000000;">control engineering</span></a><span style="color:#000000;">, </span><a title="Molecular engineering" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_engineering"><span style="color:#000000;">molecular engineering</span></a><span style="color:#000000;"> (from </span><a title="Nanochemistry" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanochemistry"><span style="color:#000000;">nanochemistry</span></a><span style="color:#000000;"> and </span><a title="Biology" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology"><span style="color:#000000;">biology</span></a><span style="color:#000000;">) which, combined, make possible the generation of simpler, more economical, reliable and versatile systems. The portmanteau "mechatronics" was coined by Mr. Tetsuro Mori ("Toets") and Er. Jiveshwar Sharma ("Jove"), the senior engineers of the </span><a title="Japan" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan"><span style="color:#000000;">Japanese</span></a><span style="color:#000000;"> company </span><a class="mw-redirect" title="Yaskawa" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaskawa"><span style="color:#000000;">Yaskawa</span></a><span style="color:#000000;"> and american company in 1969. An industrial robot is a prime example of a mechatronics system; it includes aspects of electronics, mechanics and computing, so it can carry out its day to day jobs. </span><br /><span style="color:#000000;"><br /></span><a title="Engineering cybernetics" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_cybernetics"><span style="color:#000000;">Engineering cybernetics</span></a><span style="color:#000000;"> deals with the question of control </span><a title="Engineering" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering"><span style="color:#000000;">engineering</span></a><span style="color:#000000;"> of mechatronic systems. It is used to control or regulate such a system (see </span><a title="Control theory" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_theory"><span style="color:#000000;">control theory</span></a><span style="color:#000000;">). Through collaboration the mechatronic modules perform the production goals and inherit flexible and agile manufacturing properties in the production scheme. Modern production equipment consists of mechatronic modules that are integrated according to a </span><a class="new" title="Control architecture (page does not exist)" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Control_architecture&action=edit&redlink=1"><span style="color:#000000;">control architecture</span></a><span style="color:#000000;">. The most known architectures involve </span><a title="Hierarchy" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarchy"><span style="color:#000000;">hierarchy</span></a><span style="color:#000000;">, </span><a title="Polyarchy" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyarchy"><span style="color:#000000;">polyarchy</span></a><span style="color:#000000;">, </span><a title="Heterarchy" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterarchy"><span style="color:#000000;">heterarchy</span></a><span style="color:#000000;">, and hybrid. The methods for achieving a technical effect are described by control </span><a title="Algorithm" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithm"><span style="color:#000000;">algorithms</span></a><span style="color:#000000;">, which may or may not utilize </span><a class="mw-redirect" title="Formal method" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_method"><span style="color:#000000;">formal methods</span></a><span style="color:#000000;"> in their design. Hybrid-systems important to mechatronics include </span><a title="Production system" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Production_system"><span style="color:#000000;">production systems</span></a><span style="color:#000000;">, synergy drives, </span><a title="Mars Exploration Rover" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_Exploration_Rover"><span style="color:#000000;">planetary exploration rovers</span></a><span style="color:#000000;">, automotive subsystems such as </span><a title="Anti-lock braking system" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-lock_braking_system"><span style="color:#000000;">anti-lock braking systems</span></a><span style="color:#000000;"> and spin-assist, and every day equipment such as autofocus cameras, video, </span><a class="mw-redirect" title="Hard disk" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_disk"><span style="color:#000000;">hard disks</span></a><span style="color:#000000;">, and CD players.</span><br /><span style="color:#000000;"></span><br /><strong><span style="font-size:130%;color:#000000;">Course Structure</span></strong><br /><span style="color:#000000;"></span><br /><span style="color:#000000;">Mechatronic students do subjects from the various fields shown below:<br />Mechanical enginering and Materials science subjects<br />Electronic enginering subjects<br />Computer enginering subjects<br />Systems and Control engineering subjects </span><br /><br /><strong><span style="font-size:130%;">Application</span></strong><br /><br /><a title="Automation" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automation"><span style="color:#000000;">Automation</span></a><span style="color:#000000;"> and </span><a title="Robotics" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics"><span style="color:#000000;">robotics</span></a><span style="color:#000000;"><br /></span><a title="Servomechanism" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Servomechanism"><span style="color:#000000;">Servo-mechanics</span></a><span style="color:#000000;"><br /></span><a title="Sensor" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensor"><span style="color:#000000;">Sensing</span></a><span style="color:#000000;"> and </span><a title="Control system" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_system"><span style="color:#000000;">control systems</span></a><span style="color:#000000;"><br /></span><a title="Automotive engineering" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automotive_engineering"><span style="color:#000000;">Automotive engineering</span></a><span style="color:#000000;">, Automotive equipment in the design of subsystems such as </span><a title="Anti-lock braking system" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-lock_braking_system"><span style="color:#000000;">anti-lock braking systems</span></a><span style="color:#000000;"><br />Computer-machine controls, such as computer driven machines like IE CNC milling machines<br />Expert systems<br />Industrial goods, Industrial manufacturing<br /></span><a class="mw-redirect" title="Consumer products" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumer_products"><span style="color:#000000;">Consumer products</span></a><span style="color:#000000;"><br /></span><a class="mw-redirect" title="Biomedical science" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomedical_science"><span style="color:#000000;">Biomedical systems</span></a><span style="color:#000000;"><br />Mechatronics systems<br />Medical mechatronics, Medical imaging systems<br />Energy and power systems<br />Structural dynamic systems<br />Transportation and vehicular systems<br />Database and data communication networks<br />Mechatronics as the new language of the automobile<br />Diagnostic, reliability and control system techniques<br />Computer aided and integrated manufacturing systems<br /></span><a class="mw-redirect" title="Computer aided design" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_aided_design"><span style="color:#000000;">Computer aided design</span></a><span style="color:#000000;"><br />Engineering and manufacturing systems<br />Computer techniques in medical and bio technology systems </span><br /><br /><strong><span style="font-size:130%;">Varient of Field</span></strong><br /><strong><span style="font-size:130%;"></span></strong><br /><span style="color:#000000;">An emerging variant of this field is </span><a title="Biomechatronics" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomechatronics"><span style="color:#000000;">biomechatronics</span></a><span style="color:#000000;">, whose purpose is to integrate mechanical parts with a human being, usually in the form of removable gadgets such as an </span><a title="Exoskeleton" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exoskeleton"><span style="color:#000000;">exoskeleton</span></a><span style="color:#000000;">. This is the "real-life" version of </span><a title="Cyberware" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyberware"><span style="color:#000000;">cyberware</span></a><span style="color:#000000;">.</span><br /><br /><span style="color:#000000;">Another emerging variant is Electronical or electronics design centric ECAD/MCAD co-design. Electronical is where the integration and co-design between the design team and design tools of an electronics centric system and the design team and design tools of that systems physical/mechanical enclosure takes place.</span>Gabungan Mahasiswa Kejuruteraanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03438000291098117936noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4269717405423804192.post-34410081601741391102009-09-09T10:15:00.001-07:002009-10-19T06:08:54.566-07:00Kuala Lumpur Tower ( KL Tower )<div align="center"><a href="http://www.monash.edu.my/advancement/future/kl_tower.jpg"><img alt="" border="0" src="http://www.monash.edu.my/advancement/future/kl_tower.jpg" style="height: 473px; width: 367px;" /></a><br />
</div><br />
<b><span style="font-size: 130%;">The Chronology of Menara Kuala Lumpur Construction</span></b><br />
<br />
1st Phase, 4th October 1991- Widening of Jalan Punchak and excavations of soil from construction site.- Finished: 15th August 1992<br />
<br />
2nd Phase,6th July 1992- Construction of the foundation and basement of tower- 50,000 cubic metres of concrete were endless poured for 31 hours hence setting a record in the Malaysian construction industry.- Finished: 15th April 1993 (without pilling).<br />
<br />
3rd Phase/ 'superstructure', began in May 1994- The dreary construction of the tower starts with erection of the tower shaft, then the tower head.- As the ultimate touches to the tower head were being done, the construction of the tourist building began.- Introduce Islamic motif to reflect Malaysia's Islamic Heritage, and blended eastern design with western architectural technology- Main Lobby – decorated with lovely glass-clad domes that glint like huge diamond.- These domes were designed and arranged in the form of the 'Muqarnas' by Iranian craftsmen from Esfahan<br />
<br />
Final Touch, 13th September 1994- Topping up Ceremony where the Antenna Mast was installed by YAB Dato' Seri Dr Mahathir Mohamad- Marking the final height of tower, 421 above ground level.- Installation of the facilities and amenities executed to ensure comfort and safety.Perfecting Tower- Opened to public on 23rd July 1996.- Officially launched by the Malaysian Prime Minister at the time, Tun Dr. Mahathir Mohamad of Malaysia on 1st October 1996.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: 130%;"><b>Architecture<br />
</b></span><br />
<br />
Construction Period :1992 - 1995<br />
Designed / Architect : Kumpulan Senireka Sdn. Bhd<br />
Constructed : Wayss & Freytag<br />
Technical Assessor : Ove Arup & Partner International London/Jururunding Kuala Lumpur<br />
Total Height of Tower: 421 metres<br />
Upper Observatory Level : 25 km<br />
Inaugural Date : 1 October 1996<br />
Gross Ground Floor Area of Building : 80,417.5 square metres<br />
Total Length of Antenna : 86 metres<br />
Outer Diameter of Shaft Wall : 2.4m to 13.6m<br />
Thickness of Shaft : 1.4m to 0.6m<br />
Foundation & Basement : 17m deep<br />
Maximum Foundation Diameter : 54m<br />
Head : 6 stories & 7,700m square floor area<br />
Concrete : 45,000 tones<br />
Reinforcement : 5,300 tones<br />
Structural Steel : 1,300 tones<br />
Total Weight of Tower : 100,000 tones<br />
Total height of above sea level : 515 m<br />
Total height of above ground level : 412m<br />
<br />
<div align="center"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhSLLQXMntj2AsBtyFR2bwnoergKCsD8Edq03T3Abu1DzNtpdXCZ9jFVg1bmNLsM7rV4MdSImVIIPUCjx3c5m80UN9OHyj6_kmpVudu6bP-hxZ7wvAWOYBYCaPoeOayjudbCv-R8SNsHayv/s1600-h/towersturcture1.png"><img alt="" border="0" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5379520208537673650" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhSLLQXMntj2AsBtyFR2bwnoergKCsD8Edq03T3Abu1DzNtpdXCZ9jFVg1bmNLsM7rV4MdSImVIIPUCjx3c5m80UN9OHyj6_kmpVudu6bP-hxZ7wvAWOYBYCaPoeOayjudbCv-R8SNsHayv/s320/towersturcture1.png" style="height: 320px; width: 213px;" /></a><br />
</div><br />
<span style="font-size: 130%;"><b>Telecomunication</b></span><br />
<div align="left">Menara Kuala Lumpur, recognised today as the telecommunication tower for Malaysia, is equipped with new technology to meet the requirements of increasing telecommunications demands in the country. Menara Kuala Lumpur was designed and constructed to replace the stell tower (original serving Kuala Lumpur and the telecommunication networks of Malaysia) which was of insufficient height for the country's rapid development and communication network needs<br />
</div><div align="left">The top four floors of Menara Kuala Lumpur's tower head has been set aside for telecommunication and technological purposes. Telekom Malaysia's microwave station is on the third floor of the Tower Head (TH03), while the fourth floor (TH04) has been set aside for Telekom's future expansion. Radio Television Malaysia's (RTM) radio and TV broadcast stations are situated on the top level of the Tower Head (TH06).<br />
</div>Constructed at a central point at the top of Bukit Nanas, Menara Kuala Lumpur has major advantages over other telecommunications buildings. The Tower main tasks include educating and informing the public through television and FM-radio broadcasting, providing a wider reception field for programmes throughout the Klang Valley area. Due to space availability in the Tower and the short distance between transmitter and antenna, future expansion of the TV and FM-radio transmissions (the adding of new programmes) will be a simple process. Due to the great height of the Tower (421 metres), there will be services such as mobile telephones (cellular radio), paging systems and radio services for the police, ambulance and armed forces, the fire brigade, the city administration, public services, public transportation, taxi associations and other emerging network communication users. The Tower will also cover services linked to the Marine Department,the Meteorological Department and the Traffic Control Department.<br />
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<b><span style="font-size: 130%;">Safety and Security</span></b><br />
<a href="javascript:void(0);"></a><br />
Menara Kuala Lumpur was constructed and is currently operated utilizing comprehensive state-of-the-art safety and security based on global standards and practices.The surrounding area is fenced with a combination of chain link and brick wall fencing. There are 38 security personnel managed patrolling the area 24/7, safeguarding the Tower and its surrounding area from unauthorized access, theft, breach of security rules and criminal actions.The area is also closely monitored by state-of-the-art Perimeter Intruder Detection System (PIDS) and supported by 80 Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) installed at various strategic locations.<br />
<br />
souce : www.kltower.comGabungan Mahasiswa Kejuruteraanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03438000291098117936noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4269717405423804192.post-9568319798069999912009-09-08T03:00:00.000-07:002009-09-09T10:49:06.565-07:00SMART Tunnel<a href="http://poobalan.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2007/08/map_smart.jpg"></a><br /><br /><br /><p align="center"><a href="http://malaysiahadari.files.wordpress.com/2007/06/smart-tunnel1.jpg"><img style="WIDTH: 394px; CURSOR: hand; HEIGHT: 480px" alt="" src="http://malaysiahadari.files.wordpress.com/2007/06/smart-tunnel1.jpg" border="0" /></a></p><br /><br /><br /><p><br /><strong><span style="font-size:130%;">What is SMART?</span><br /></strong><br />SMART is an acronym for Stormwater Management and Road Tunnel, a project under the Federal Government initiated to alleviate the flooding problem in the city centre of Kuala Lumpur. The project is implemented through a joint venture pact between MMC Corp Berhad and Gamuda Berhad with the Department of Irrigation And Drainage Malaysia and the Malaysian Highway Authority as the executing government agencies.<br /><br />Studies had indicated that the critical stretch of Sungai Klang between Sg Klang /Sg Ampang confluence and Sg Gombak/ Sg Klang confluence to be flood prone areas and the fact that the river is further constrained by the Jalan Tun Perak Bridge (near Masjid Jamek) which is low, has resulted in the surrounding areas to experience flash floods.<br /><br />The SMART system will be able to divert large volumes of flood water from entering this critical stretch via a holding pond, bypass tunnel and storage reservoir. This will reduce the flood water level at the Jalan Tun Perak Bridge, preventing spillover.<br /><br /><span style="font-size:130%;"><strong>Other benefits of SMART</strong><br /></span><br />The Stormwater Management and Road Tunnel (SMART) project was incepted by the project proponent, namely MMC Corp Berhad-Gamuda Berhad Joint Venture, primarily to mitigate the recurring floods in the city of Kuala Lumpur, the financial, business and commercial hub of Malaysia. However, at the design stage of SMART, the dual purpose concept was born from the ingenuity of the project proponents and the motorway tunnel was integrated into the system to relieve traffic congestion at the main Southern Gateway to the city centre.<br /><br /><span style="font-size:130%;"><strong>The Motorway to Ease Congestion<br /></strong></span></p><br /><br /><br /><p align="center"><a href="http://poobalan.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2007/08/map_smart.jpg"><img style="WIDTH: 437px; CURSOR: hand; HEIGHT: 396px" alt="" src="http://poobalan.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2007/08/map_smart.jpg" border="0" /></a></p><br /><p><br />The motorway tunnel will provide an alternative route for motorists from the Southern Gateway, i.e. KL-Seremban Highway, Federal Highway, Besraya and East-West Link entering and exiting the city centre. This will reduce traffic congestion at the Southern Gateway leading to the city centre. The travel time will be reduced significantly. For example from the Jalan Istana Interchange-Kampung Pandan the expected travel time is a mere four minutes compared to ten to fifteen minutes using the existing roads.<br /><br /><span style="font-size:130%;"><strong>Unique Features</strong></span><br /></p><p align="center"><a href="http://www.thestar.com.my/archives/2007/4/16/central/m_02alignment.jpg"><img style="WIDTH: 536px; CURSOR: hand; HEIGHT: 292px" alt="" src="http://www.thestar.com.my/archives/2007/4/16/central/m_02alignment.jpg" border="0" /></a></p><p><br />Since safety of vehicles in the motorway will be of paramount importance, SMART Tunnel has additional features that are unique over and above the features seen in a normal motorway tunnel. The main features are:<br />1. Automated Flood Control Gates<br />2. Cross Passage<br />3. Ventilation/Escape Shafts<br />4. Radio Re-Broadcasting Services<br />5. Air Quality Monitoring Equipment (AQME)<br />6. SCADA Monitoring & Surveillance<br />7. Other Emergency Equipments<br /><br /><strong>1. Automated Flood Control Gates</strong><br /><br />The water tight gates are installed on either ends of the motorway tunnel (within the stormwater section). In addition similar single flood control steel gates are installed at both entrances and exits of the motorway tunnel. These gates are operated using a hydraulic system.<br />• 3 automated flood gates at both end of motorway<br />• 2 automated road gates at both end junction boxes<br /><br /><strong>2. Cross Passage<br /></strong><br />Cross Passage between decks at 250m intervals: the passage acts as emergency exits during an emergency.<br /><br /><strong>3. Ventilation/Escape Shafts</strong><br /><br />Ventilation/ escape shafts at 1km intervals. These powerful air ventilators will constantly renew the air and maintain the air quality within the motorway. To protect the ventilation system during the flooding, the system consists of a series of shafts each containing an exhaust and fresh air injector. This design enables the fans to be installed outside the SMART tunnel to create a longitudinal flow in the tunnel between the shafts that permits the air in the tunnel to be continuously renewed and the extraction of the exhaust fumes. The feature also allows for smoke control in the event of a fire.<br /><br /><strong>4. Radio Re-Broadcasting Services</strong><br /><br />Radio re-broadcasting is an audio (sound) broadcasting service, traditionally broadcast through the air as radio waves (a form of electromagnetic radiation) from a transmitter to an antenna and finally to a receiving device. Stations can link in radio networks to broadcast common programming, either in syndication or simulcast or both. Audio broadcasting also can be done via cable FM, local wire networks, satellite and the Internet. With the radio re-broadcasting services available in Smart Tunnel, user should be able to receive the radio channel, hand phone and other maintenance communication reception without any interference.<br /><br /><strong>5. Air Quality Monitoring Equipment (AQME)<br /></strong><br />There are 38 sets of AQME monitoring carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen monoxide (NO) and particulate. They are cited in the upper and lower decks. The ventilation system will be operated automatically based on the air quality monitoring system outputs. The ventilation will provide for the supply and extract of air for both the upper and lower road decks and consists of 4 nos. of ventilation shafts each containing 8 set of fans.<br /><br /><strong>6. SCADA Monitoring & Surveillance</strong><br /><br />State-of-the-art SCADA monitoring and surveillance of SMART at its 24-hour SMART Highway. Smart Tunnel is equipped with more than 212 units of Closed Circuit Television and BARCO Wall is able to show 70 CCTVs screen at one time. Automatic detection systems use video images and laser beams processing to detect unusual events.<br /><br /><strong>7. Other Emergency Equipments</strong><br /><br />Equipped with firefighting equipment, telephone and surveillance at 1 km interval. Hydrant & Fire Extinguishers located every 90m along slow lane of both tunnel road decks. Hose Reel, Fire Extinguishers, Break glass and Emergency Telephone located within each cross passages, ventilation shafts and escape shafts.<br /><br /><br />Source from <a href="http://www.smarttunnel.com.my/">http://www.smarttunnel.com.my/</a> </p>Gabungan Mahasiswa Kejuruteraanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03438000291098117936noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4269717405423804192.post-88167623226986068482009-08-25T22:46:00.000-07:002009-10-19T06:10:53.728-07:00KLCC Petronas Twin Tower<div style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.skyscraper.org/TALLEST_TOWERS/Pics/t_petronas2.jpg" onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}"><img alt="" border="0" src="http://www.skyscraper.org/TALLEST_TOWERS/Pics/t_petronas2.jpg" style="cursor: pointer; height: 338px; width: 225px;" /></a><br />
</div><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,geneva,verdana; font-size: 85%;"><span style="font-size: 78%;"><span style="font-size: 100%; font-weight: bold;"><br />
</span><br />
</span>Height: 1,483 ft (452 meters)<br />
Owners: Kuala Lumpur City Centre Holdings Sendirian Berhad<br />
Architects: Cesar Pelli & Associates<br />
Engineers: Thornton-Tomasetti Engineers<br />
Contractors: Mayjus and SKJ Joint Ventures<br />
Topping Out: 1998<br />
Official Opening: August 28, 1999 </span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,geneva,verdana; font-size: 85%;">On April 15, 1996, the Council on Tall Buildings named the Petronas Towers the tallest in the world, passing the torch to a new continent. Although the project's developers, a consortium of private investors in association with the Malaysian government and Petronas, the national oil company, had not originally set out to surpass Chicago's Sears Tower, they did aspire to construct a monument announcing Kuala Lumpur's prominence as a commercial and cultural capital. In the design of American architect Cesar Pelli they found a winning scheme--twin towers of elegant proportions with a slenderness ratio (height to width) of 9.4--that would capture not only the title but the public imagination. </span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,geneva,verdana; font-size: 85%;">Pelli's design answered the developer's call to express the 'culture and heritage of Malaysia' by evoking Islamic arabesques and employing repetitive geometries characteristic of Muslim architecture. In plan, an 8-point star formed by intersecting squares is an obvious reference to Islamic design; curved and pointed bays create a scalloped facade that suggests temple towers. The identical towers are linked by a bridge at the 41st floor, creating a dramatic gateway to the city. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,geneva,verdana; font-size: 85%;">The structure is high-strength concrete, a material familiar to Asian contractors and twice as effective as steel in sway reduction. Supported by 75-by-75-foot concrete cores and an outer ring of widely-spaced super columns, the towers showcase a sophisticated structural system that accommodates its slender profile and provides from 14,000 to 22,000 square feet of column-free office space per floo </span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,geneva,verdana; font-size: 85%;">Other features include a curtain wall of glass and stainless steel sun shades to diffuse the intense equatorial light; a double-decker elevator system with a sky lobby transfer point on the 41st floor to accommodate the thousands of people who use the complex daily; and a mixed-use base featuring a concert hall and shopping center enveloped by nearly seventy acres of public parks and plazas. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,geneva,verdana; font-size: 85%;">In both engineering and design, the Petronas Towers succeed at acknowledging Malaysia's past and future, embracing the country's heritage while proclaiming its modernization. The end result, says Pelli, is a monument that is not specifically Malaysian, but will forever be identified with Kuala Lumpur.</span><br />
<br />
<br />
<table align="center" border="1" style="height: 561px; width: 506px;"><tbody>
<tr><td width="30%"><span style="font-size: 85%;">Number of storeys:</span><br />
</td><td width="70%"><span style="font-size: 85%;">88</span><br />
</td></tr>
<tr><td width="30%"><span style="font-size: 85%;">Height:</span><br />
</td><td width="70%"><span style="font-size: 85%;">452 metres above street level</span><br />
</td></tr>
<tr><td width="30%"><span style="font-size: 85%;">Total built-up area:</span><br />
</td><td width="70%"><span style="font-size: 85%;">341,760 sq.metres ( 3.7 million sq. feet)</span><br />
</td></tr>
<tr><td width="30%"><span style="font-size: 85%;">Foundation:</span><br />
</td><td width="70%"><span style="font-size: 85%;">4.5 metres [15 feet] thick raft containing 13,200 cubic metres of grade 60 reinforced concrete, weighing approximately 32,550 tonnes under each tower, supported by 104 barette piles varying from 60 to 115 metres in length The floor-plate of the Tower was designed based on geometric patterns common in architecture of Islamic heritage.</span><br />
</td></tr>
<tr><td width="30%"><span style="font-size: 85%;">Stainless steel cladding:</span><br />
</td><td width="70%"><span style="font-size: 85%;">65,000 sq. metres</span><br />
</td></tr>
<tr><td width="30%"><span style="font-size: 85%;">Cladding comprised:</span><br />
</td><td width="70%"><span style="font-size: 85%;">33,000 panels</span><br />
</td></tr>
<tr><td width="30%"><span style="font-size: 85%;">Vision glass:</span><br />
</td><td width="70%"><span style="font-size: 85%;">77,000 sq. metres </span><br />
</td></tr>
<tr><td width="30%"><span style="font-size: 85%;">No of windows:</span><br />
</td><td width="70%"><span style="font-size: 85%;">32,000 windows</span><br />
</td></tr>
<tr><td width="30%"><span style="font-size: 85%;">Concrete various strengths up to grade 80:</span><br />
</td><td width="70%"><span style="font-size: 85%;">160,000 cubic metres in the super structures</span><br />
</td></tr>
<tr><td width="30%"><span style="font-size: 85%;">Steel:</span><br />
</td><td width="70%"><span style="font-size: 85%;">36,910 tonnes of beams, trusses and reinforcement</span><br />
</td></tr>
<tr><td width="30%"><span style="font-size: 85%;">Project cost:</span><br />
</td><td width="70%"><span style="font-size: 85%;">RM1.8 billion</span><br />
</td></tr>
<tr><td width="30%"><span style="font-size: 85%;">Man at work:</span><br />
</td><td width="70%"><span style="font-size: 85%;">7,000 on the site at the peak of construction and until 1997 there were 1,000 on each tower.</span><br />
</td></tr>
<tr><td width="30%"><span style="font-size: 85%;">Design/Architecture:<br />
<br />
</span><br />
</td><td width="70%"><span style="font-size: 85%;"><a href="http://architecture.about.com/library/bl-pelli.htm">Cesar Pelli</a> & Associates in association with KLCC Architects.</span><br />
</td></tr>
<tr><td width="30%"><span style="font-size: 85%;">Construction time:</span><br />
</td><td width="70%"><span style="font-size: 85%;">five years.</span><br />
</td></tr>
<tr><td width="30%"><span style="font-size: 85%;">Tower 1 constructed by:</span><br />
</td><td width="70%"><span style="font-size: 85%;">The Mayjaus Joint-Venture led by Japan's Hazama Corporation, consisted of JA Jones Construction Co, MMC Engineering Services Sdn Bhd, Ho Hup Construction Co Bhd and Mitsubishi Corporation</span><br />
</td></tr>
<tr><td width="30%"><span style="font-size: 85%;">Tower 2 constructed by:</span><br />
</td><td width="70%"><span style="font-size: 85%;">SKJ Joint Venture led by Samsung Engineering & Construction Co and comprised Kuk Dong Engineering & Construction Co Ltd and Syarikat Jasatera Sdn Bhd.</span><br />
</td></tr>
<tr><td width="30%"><span style="font-size: 85%;">Tower 1 occupied by:</span><br />
</td><td width="70%"><span style="font-size: 85%;">PETRONAS (PETROLIAM NASIONAL BERHAD)</span><br />
</td></tr>
<tr><td width="30%"><span style="font-size: 85%;">Tower 2 occupied by:</span><br />
</td><td width="70%"><span style="font-size: 85%;">PETRONAS' associate companies and the remaining space leased out to multinationals<br />
</span><br />
</td></tr>
</tbody></table>Gabungan Mahasiswa Kejuruteraanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03438000291098117936noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4269717405423804192.post-54743506803593836282009-08-23T20:22:00.000-07:002009-08-23T20:55:59.116-07:00Transmission of Islamic Engineering<div align="left">Medieval Islam was a prosperous and dynamic civilization, and much of its prosperity was due to an engineering technology that assisted in increasing the production of raw materials and finished products. In addition, the demand for scientific instruments, and the need to cater for the amusements and aesthetic pleasures of the leisured classes, was reflected in a tradition of fine technology based upon delicate and sensitive control mechanisms. This is a very wide subject indeed, and the Islamic contribution to the development of modern engineering will be indicated by means of citing individual cases of technology transfer. </div><div align="center"><br /></div><div align="left">Civil Engineering<br /></div><div align="left">Irrigation and Water Supply</div><div align="left"><br />With the spread of the Islamic Empire westward, agricultural and irrigation methods and techniques were introduced into the western regions of Islam. The rulers of al-Andalus and many of their followers were of Syrian origin, and the climate, terrain and hydraulic conditions in parts of southern Spain resemble those of Syria. It is hardly surprising, therefore, that the irrigation methods - technical and administrative - in Valencia closely resemble the methods applied in the Ghuta of Damascus.<a href="http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%2071.htm#[2]_#[2]_">[2]</a>There is a unanimous opinion among historians that the present Spanish irrigation systems of Valencia and Andalusia are of Muslim origin. In 1960 a celebration was held in Valencia commemorating the ‘Millennium of the Waters’. It expressed public recognition of the establishment of the irrigation system, and specifically of the Tribunal of Waters during the reign of 'Abd al-Rahman III'. The irrigation system that had been instituted in the days of the caliphs in Valencia was perpetuated and confirmed under the succeeding dynasties, until, when the Christian conquerors appeared in the thirteenth century, it recommended itself for adoption, backed by the experienced benefits of several centuries. The Arabic names used in the irrigation systems give distinct proofs of the Moorish origin of the irrigation systems in eastern Spain. There is some difference between eastern Spain (Valencia and Murcia) and the kingdom of Granada. The chief object of the Granada water supply system was not the irrigation of crops only but the distribution of water to the fountains and baths of the capital. In Granada the system is still "to an exceptional degree" the same as it was in the time of the Arabs, and we find undisturbed the institutions practiced by the Arabs themselves.<br /></div><div align="center"><br /></div><img style="DISPLAY: block; MARGIN: 0px auto 10px; WIDTH: 275px; CURSOR: hand; HEIGHT: 260px; TEXT-ALIGN: center" alt="" src="http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/image001.jpg" border="0" /> <div align="center">An acequia flowing toward Granada from the spring in the village of Alfucar in the foothills of the Sierra Nevada, was first built in the 13th century and is still flowing today .</div><div align="left"><br />The Arabic systems in irrigations were diffused from al-Andalus to Christian Spain. This accounts for the Aragonese traditions of irrigation. These systems of irrigation had migrated from Spain to America where we find them still practiced in San Antonio in Texas. The story begins properly in the Canary Islands where in the late fifteenth century; settlers from Spain introduced Islamic institutions of water distribution. They brought with them to the American southwest both the technology and institutional framework for irrigation and the distribution of water.</div><div align="left"><br />The Qanat</div><br />The qanat system was an efficient method for irrigation and water supply. It originated in pre-Islamic Iran. The qanat technology spread westward to North Africa, Spain, and Sicily. The Andalusi agronomical writers provide practical advice on well-digging and qanat construction. From Spain the qanat technology was transferred to the New World and qanats have been found in Mexico, Peru, and Chile. In the 1970s a qanat system 2.3 kilometers long was located in the La Venta area, just 10 km northwest of Guadalajara, Mexico. In Palermo, Italy, a qanat system from the Arab days was used to bring fresh water to the city and to irrigate its beautiful gardens. There are current plans to revive and reconstruct the Arabic qanat and utilize it to solve the acute needs of the modern city of Palermo for potable water. The project in hand is of great historical, archaeological, geological and hydro-geological importance. It is already of great interest for tourists.<br /><br />Dams<br /><br />There are many Muslim dams in Spain, a large number of which were built during the tenth century AD, the golden age of Umayyad power in the peninsula. In this period, for example, many small dams, or azuds, were built on the 150-mile-long River Turia, which flows into the Mediterranean at Valencia. (In passing it is important to note the Spanish word azud, from Arabic al-sadd, one of many modern irrigation terms taken directly from Arabic and certain proof of Muslim influence on Spanish technology.) Eight of these dams are spread over six miles of river in Valencia, and serve the local irrigation system. Some of the canals carry water much further, particularly to the Valencian rice fields. These, of course, were established by the Muslims, and continue to be one of the most important rice-producing centres in Europe. Because of their safe design and method of construction, and because they were provided with deep and very firm foundations, the Turia dams have been able to survive the dangerous flood conditions for 1000 years.<a href="http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%2071.htm#[3]#[3]">[3]</a><br /><br />Mechanical Engineering<br /><br />Water-Raising Machines<br /><br /><p align="center"><a href="http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/image003.jpg"><img style="WIDTH: 659px; CURSOR: hand; HEIGHT: 417px" alt="" src="http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/image003.jpg" border="0" /></a></p>The saqiya was widely used in the Muslim world from the earliest days onwards. It was introduced to the Iberian Peninsula by the Muslims, where it was massively exploited. Its Maximum expansion in the Valencian Country took place throughout the eighteenth century. In 1921 their number amounted to 6000 installed in the Orchards of Valencia, which supplied water to 17866 hectares. Throughout the twentieth century they have been replaced by hydraulic pumps.A saqiva in Ma'arrat al-Nu'man near Aleppo<br /><br />Today, this ancient water raising machine is seen in a few farming areas in the northern Mexican states. It also survives in the Yucatan Peninsula. It is reported that one group of farmers in Veracruz, Mexico is reverting back to using the traditional technology of the saqiya. The na'ura (noria) is also a very significant machine in the history of engineering. It consists of a large wheel made of timber and provided with paddles. The large-scale use of norias was introduced to Spain by Syrian engineers. An installation similar to that at Hama was in operation at Toledo in the twelfth century. The Na'ura (Noria) of Albolafia in Cordoba also known as Kulaib, which stands until now, served to elevate the water of the river until the Palace of the Caliphs. Its construction was commissioned by Abd al-Rahman I, and has been reconstructed several times.<br /><br /><br /><br /><p align="center"><a href="http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/image005.jpg"><img style="WIDTH: 616px; CURSOR: hand; HEIGHT: 515px" alt="" src="http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/image005.jpg" border="0" /></a></p><br />The Noria of Cordoba<br /><br />The noria was heavily exploited all over Muslim Spain. It was diffused to other parts of Europe, and, like the Saqiya, has shown remarkable powers of survival into modern times. Five water-raising machines are described in al-Jazari's great book on machines, composed in Diyar Bakr in 1206. One of these is a water-driven saqiya, Three of the others are modifications to the shaduf. These are important for the ideas they embody, ideas which are of importance in the development of mechanical engineering as we shall mention below. The fifth machine is the most significant. This is a water-driven twin-cylinder pump. The important features embodied in this pump are the double-acting principle, the conversion of rotary into reciprocating motion, and the use of true suction pipes. The hand-driven pumps of classical and Hellenistic times had vertical cylinders which stood directly in the water which entered them through plate-valves in the bottoms of the cylinders on the suction strokes. The pumps could not, therefore, be positioned above the water level. This pump of al-Jazari could be considered as the origin of the suction pump. The assumption that Taccola (c. 1450) was the first to describe a suction pump is not substantiated. The only explanation for the sudden appearance of the suction pump in the writings of the Renaissance engineers in Europe is that the idea was inherited from Islam whose engineers were familiar with piston pumps for a long time throughout the Middle Ages.<br /><br /><p align="center"><a href="http://www.history-science-technology.com/images/image003.jpg"><img style="WIDTH: 549px; CURSOR: hand; HEIGHT: 579px" alt="" src="http://www.history-science-technology.com/images/image003.jpg" border="0" /></a></p><br />Twin Cylinder Suction Pump of Al-Jazari<br /><br />Evidence for the continuation of a tradition of mechanical engineering is provided by a book on machines written by Taqi al-Din about the year 1552. A number of machines are described, including a pump similar to al-Jazari's, but the most interesting device is a six-cylinder 'Monobloc' pump. The cylinders are bored in-line in a block of wood which stands in the water - one-way valves admit water into each cylinder on the suction stroke. The delivery pipes, each of which is also provided with a one-way clack-valve, are led out from the side of each cylinder and brought together into a single delivery outlet. It is worthy of note that Taqi al-Din's book antedates the famous book on machines written by Agostino Ramelli in 1588. It is therefore quite possible that there was some Islamic influence on European machine technology even as late as the sixteenth century as we have alluded above.<br /><br />Power from Water and Wind<br /><br />The Muslim geographers and travelers leave us in no doubt as to the importance of corn-milling in the Muslim world. This importance is reflected by the widespread occurrence of mills from Iran to the Iberian Peninsula. Arab geographers were rating streams at so much 'mill-power'. Large urban communities were provided with flour by factory milling installations. The ship-mill was one of the methods used to increase the output of mills, taking advantage of the faster current in midstream and avoiding the problems caused by the lowering of the water level in the dry season. Another method was to fix the water-wheels to the piers of bridges in order to utilize the increased flow caused by the partial damming of the river. Dams were also constructed to provide additional power for mills (and water-raising machines) In the twelfth century al-Idrisi described the dam at Cordoba in Spain, in which there were three mill houses each containing four mills. Until quite recently its three mill houses still functioned.<br /><br /><br /><br /><p align="center"><a href="http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/image008.jpg"><img style="WIDTH: 420px; CURSOR: hand; HEIGHT: 550px" alt="" src="http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/image008.jpg" border="0" /></a></p><p align="center">Existing Mill Houses on a Dam Near Cordoba Were Described by al-Idrisi</p><div align="left"><br />Evidence of the Muslims' eagerness to harness every available source of water power is provided by their use of tidal mills in the tenth century in the Basra area where there were mills that were operated by the ebb-tide. Tidal mills did not appear in Europe until about a century after this. Water power was also used in Islam for other industrial purposes. In the year 751 the industry of paper-making was established in the city of Samarqand. The paper was made from linen, flax or hemp rags. Soon afterwards paper mills on the pattern of those in Samarqand were erected in Baghdad and spread until they reached Muslim Spain. The raw materials in these mills were prepared by pounding them with water-powered trip-hammers. Writing about the year 1044, al-Biruni tells us that gold ores were pulverized by this method "as is the case in Samarqand with the pounding of flax for paper". Water power was also used in the Muslim world for fulling cloth, sawing timber and processing sugarcane. It is yet to be established to what extent industrial milling in Europe was influenced by Muslim practices. A likely area of transfer is the Iberian Peninsula, where the Christians took over, in working order, many Muslim installations, including the paper mills at Jativa. </div><div align="left"><br />Fine Technology </div><div align="left"><br />The expression 'fine technology', embraces a whole range of devices and machines, with a multiplicity of purposes: water clocks, fountains, toys and automata and astronomical instruments What they have in common is the considerable degree of engineering skill required for their manufacture, and the use of delicate mechanisms and sensitive control systems. Many of the ideas employed in the construction of ingenious devices were useful in the later development of mechanical technology. The tradition of pre-Islamic fine technology continued uninterrupted under Islam and was developed to a higher degree of sophistication. Monumental water clocks in Syria and Mesopotamia continued to be installed in public places. The Abbasid Caliphs were interested in clocks and ingenious devices. The story of the clock that was presented by Harun al-Rashid (786-809), to Charlemagne in 807 AD is well known.<a href="http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%2071.htm#[4]#[4]">[4]</a> </div><p align="center"><a href="http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/clock.jpg"><img style="WIDTH: 634px; CURSOR: hand; HEIGHT: 782px" alt="" src="http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/clock.jpg" border="0" /></a></p><p align="center">The Monumental Water Clock of Al-Jazari </p><div align="left"><br />The Evolution from Water to Mechanical Clocks</div><div align="left"><br />The technology of clock- making was transferred to Muslim Spain. About the year 1050 AD, al-Zarqali constructed a large water clock on the banks of the Tagus at Toledo in Spain. The clock was still in operation when the Christians occupied Toledo in 1085 AD. A manuscript describing Andalusian monumental clocks was written in the eleventh century by Ibn Khalaf al-Muradi. Most of his devices were water clocks, but the first five were large automata machines that incorporated several significant features. Each of them, for example, was driven by a full-size water wheel, a method that was employed in China at the same period to drive a very large monumental water clock. The text mentions both segmental and epicyclical gears. (In segmental gears one of a pair of meshing gear-wheels has teeth on only part of its perimeter; the mechanism permits intermittent transmission of power). The illustrations clearly show gear-trains incorporating both these types of gearing. This is extremely important: we have met simple gears in mills and water-raising machines, but this is the first known case of complex gears used to transmit high torque. It is also the earliest record we have of segmental and epicyclical gears. In Europe, sophisticated gears for transmitting high torque first appeared in the astronomical clock completed by Giovanni de Dondi about AD 1365. In a Spanish work compiled for Alfonso X in 1277 AD, in which all the chapters are translations or paraphrases of earlier Arabic works we find a description of a clock. It consisted of a large drum made of wood tightly assembled and sealed. The interior of the drum was divided into twelve compartments, with small holes between the compartments through which mercury flowed. Enough mercury was enclosed to fill just half the compartments. The drum was mounted on the same axle as a large wheel powered by a weight-drive wound around the wheel. Also on the axle was a pinion with six teeth that meshed with thirty-six oaken teeth on the rim of an astrolabe dial. The mercury drum and the pinion made a complete revolution in 4 hours and the astrolabe dial made a complete revolution in 24 hours. Clocks incorporating this principle are known to work satisfactorily, since many of them were made in Europe in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. This type of timepiece, however, with its effective mercury escapement, had been known in Islam since the eleventh century, at least 200 years before the first appearance of weight-driven clocks in the West. An important aspect of Islamic fine technology is the tradition of geared astronomical instruments which were described in Arabic literature. The most notable example is the astronomical geared mechanism that was described by al-Biruni and called by him Huqq al-Qamar (Box of the Moon). From al Biruni's text we understand that these mechanisms were known in Islamic astronomy. A surviving example is the geared calendar dated 1221/2 AD that is part of the collection of the Museum of the History of Science at Oxford. Derek J. de Solla Price[5] when describing the Antikythera mechanism (90 AD) remarked that "It seems likely that the Antikythera tradition was part of a corpus of knowledge that has since been lost but was known to the Arabs. It was developed and transmitted by them to medieval Europe, where it became the foundation for the whole range of subsequent invention in the field of clockwork" </div><div align="center"><a href="http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/image010.png"><img style="WIDTH: 1030px; CURSOR: hand; HEIGHT: 1530px" alt="" src="http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/image010.png" border="0" /></a><br />Al-Biruni’s Mechanical Calendar (British Library, MS OR 5593) </div><div align="left"></div><div align="center"><a href="http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/image010.png"><img style="WIDTH: 1030px; CURSOR: hand; HEIGHT: 1530px" alt="" src="http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/image010.png" border="0" /></a><br /></div><div align="center">Geared Astrolabe-Calendar of Muhammad b. Abi Bakr, 13th Century (Museum of the History of Science, Oxford). </div><br />Many of the ideas that were to be embodied in the mechanical clock had been introduced centuries before its invention: complex gear trains, segmental gears in al-Muradi and al-Jazari; epicycle gears in al-Muradi, celestial and biological simulations in the automata-machines and water clocks of Hellenistic and Islamic engineers; weight-drives in Islamic mercury clocks and. pumps, escapements in mercury docks, and other methods of controlling the speeds of water wheels. The heavy floats in water clocks may also be regarded as weights, with the constant-head system as the escapement.The knowledge that Christians in Spain learned about Muslim water clocks was transferred to Europe. Water clocks in Europe became very elaborate with complications that were often a source of fascination and amusement. There are records of an early medieval water clock where figures of angels would appear every hour, bells would ring, horsemen appeared and a little man, known as a jack, would strike the hour bell with a hammer. This is reminiscent of one of al-Jazari's water clocks.<br />In a treatise written by Robertas Anglicus in 1271, it is mentioned that the clockmakers - i.e. the makers of water clocks - were trying to solve the problem of the mechanical escapement and had almost reached their objective. The first effective escapement appeared a few years later. This evidence, circumstantial though it is, points strongly to an Islamic influence upon the invention of the mechanical clock.<br /><br />Feedback Control and Automata<br /><br />Feedback control is an engineering discipline. As such, its progress is closely tied to the practical problems that needed to be solved during any phase of human history. The Book of Ingenious Devices (Kitab al-Hiyal) of Banu Musa, was written in Baghdad about 850. It contains descriptions of a hundred devices, most of which are trick vessels which exhibit a bewildering variety of effects. The trick vessels have a variety of different effects. For example, a single outlet pipe in a vessel might pour out first wine, then water and finally a mixture of the two. The means by which these effects were obtained are of great significance for the history of engineering. By the end of the tenth century, the construction of automata was probably a well-established practice in the Arabic world. There is historical evidence that the skills of automata makers were enlisted to add distinctive features to royal palaces.<a href="http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%2071.htm#[6]#[6]">[6] </a>The early history of automata in Europe goes back to Arabic automata in Muslim Spain. We have mentioned how the technology of water clocks had been transferred to Western Europe. The elaborate automata of Islamic water clocks became a feature of European water clocks also. The Banu Musa used conical valves as "in-line" components in flow systems, the first known use of conical valves as automatic controllers. An almost constant head was maintained in a float chamber by feedback control. Other Muslim engineers used the float regulator and the important feedback principle of "on/off control in their water clocks and automata. As mentioned above, water clocks spread in Europe for some time before they were replaced by mechanical clocks, and it follows that European engineers and technicians were acquainted also to the float regulators and the automata that accompanied them. In the late 1700's, regulation of the level of a liquid was needed in two main areas: in the boiler of a steam engine and in domestic water distribution systems. Therefore float regulator devices once again become popular during the Industrial Revolution. The important feedback principle of "on/off control that was used by Muslim engineers came up again also in connection with minimum-time problems in the 1950's.<a href="http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%2071.htm#[7]#[7]">[7]</a><br /><br />Astronomical Instruments<br /><br />The astrolabe was the astronomical instrument par excellence of the Middle Ages; from its Hellenistic origins it was brought to perfection by Muslim scientists and craftsmen. A number of astronomical problems, which otherwise have to be solved by tedious computation, can be solved very quickly by using the astrolabe. It has been established that the first European treatises on the astrolabe were of Arabic inspiration and were written in Latin at the beginning of the eleventh century in the abbey of Ripoll in Catalonia. From this centre the knowledge of the instrument was diffused to the rest of Europe. Other computing instruments were devised in the Muslim world in the later Middle Ages, perhaps the most important of these being equatoria, which were invented in Muslim Spain early in the eleventh century. The objective of the equatorium was the determination of the longitude of any one of the planets at a given time. As with the astrolabe, knowledge of equatoria was diffused into Europe from the Muslim world.Gabungan Mahasiswa Kejuruteraanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03438000291098117936noreply@blogger.com1